Vani Bhardwaj
28/10/2023
More than 225 million displacements in Asia and Pacific due to disasters induced by climate change have been observed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB)[1]225 Million Displacements in Asia and Pacific Due to Disasters, As Impact of Climate Change Deepens, Says New ADB Report. 2022. Asian Development Bank … Continue reading. The grave scenario of climate change vulnerabilities envelopes the entire region of South Asia with rise in incidences of floods, droughts, sea level rise or glacial melts; Maldives, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Pakistan are all at the ‘frontlines of the climate crisis’[2]Kugelman, M. 2021. South Asia is on the Frontlines of the Climate Crisis. Foreign Policy. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group II’s report states that “in South Asia, internal climate migrants, i.e. those migrating due to climate change and associated impacts such as water scarcity, crop failure, sea-level rise, and storm surges, are projected to be 40 million by 2050 (1.8 percent of regional population) under high warming[3]IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change … Continue reading” . Migration hotspots in South Asia[4]Ober, Kayly. 2019. The Links Between Climate Change, Disasters, Migration and Social Resilience in Asia: A Literature Review. Asian Development Bank encompass the Delhi-Lahore corridor, Gangetic plains, cities of Chittagong, Chennai, Mumbai and Dhaka. In a telling report in 2018[5]Mani, M., Bandyopadhyay, S. 2018. South Asia’s Hotspots: The Impact of Temperature and Precipitation Changes on Living Standards. World Bank Group however, the World Bank has spotlighted that most of the climate change coverage and analyses in South Asia has skewed focus on affluent coastal areas rather than the inland areas within the countries.
The article explores the interlinkages between gender based violence and climate change. We then comprehend the onset of disaster, the striking of the disaster and post-disaster phases and locate gender-responsive policies, narratives and norms therein. The region-specific peculiarities of South Asia provides us with certain scope of actions.
Climate Change and Gender Based Violence: Underscoring the Need for Gendered Representation in Climate Leadership
Let us briefly understand how ‘disaster’ and ‘gender-based violence’ can be described. The definition of disaster as adopted by United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) delineates disaster to be “a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources”. Inter-Agency Standing Committee’s Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence in humanitarian action highlights that Gender Based Violence (GBV) is “an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based on socially ascribed (i.e. gender) differences between males and females”.
The following analysis will highlight how disasters induced by climate change have gender specific ramifications. Gender-Based Violence has been described as “slow violence and layered disasters[6]Rezwana, N., Pain, R. 2020. Gender-Based Violence Before, During And After Cyclones: Slow Violence and Layered Disasters. Disasters. Volume 45. Issue4. Wiley https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12441” by Nahid Rezwana and Rachel Pain. Pre-disaster, the immediate impact of disaster and post-disaster phases of climate-related disasters have differentiated underlying currents. Extrapolating further, we see how climate resilient gendered frameworks in disaster risk management and disaster recovery management have the potential to steer geopolitics of South Asia. South Asia as understood by IPCC constitutes eight nation-states: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The approach to disasters is based on the lifecycle framework as adopted by Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.
In this section we explore how potent sites of disaster risks can be handled in a gender-sensitive manner prior to setting in of any disasters. As per the IPCC report titled, ‘Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’, in agro-based economies of South Asia, food security in India and Pakistan is getting threatened due to extreme climatic conditions. Floods cause irreversible loss of cropping area, thus enhancing land based and income security for farming communities as highlighted for frequent flooding in Bangladesh[7]Gender in Humanitarian Action Working Group: Rapid Gender Analysis of Flood Situation in North and North-Eastern Bangladesh, June 2022. Government of Bangladesh and UN Women … Continue reading. Inadequate disaster education and cultural issues reinforce the reality that disasters have unequal impacts on segments of the population. Estimates of the IPCC forecast a plunge of 10-30 per cent in rice production in India with a 1-4 celsius rise in temperatures. Perceiving a fall in future rice production provides an opportunity to shift cropping patterns that are less water-intensive and emitters of Green House Gases (GHGs). Millets are nutri-cereals that consume less water, relatively inexpensive and provide high nutrition. This provides avenues for escalating nutrition security for young girls and women, especially female farmers of South Asia.
As deforestation accelerates across mountainous topographies, landslides present as an exaggerated climate risk hazard. Geohazards are getting accelerated due to climate change[8]Takamatsu, M., Palma J., 2020. How South Asia Can Protect Life and and Assets and Against Landslides … Continue reading. Therefore, landslides can be prevented if sustainable transportation network[9]Building Resilient Transport in the South Asia Region. 2020. Global Facilitation for Disaster Risk Reduction https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hMM3CWG1qA0 across South Asia is ensured. Mining collapses, particularly critical minerals and fossil fuels, cause landslides and also take away the lives of the underprivileged young women and girls[10]Aggarwal, M. 2021. Ignored and Invisible: The Burden of Mining on Women. Mongabay https://india.mongabay.com/2021/01/ignored-and-invisible-the-burden-of-mining-on-women/ engaged in illegal mining such as in Afghanistan[11]Edes, A. 2019. At Least 30 Workers Killed in Afghanistan Gold Mine Collapse. NPR https://www.npr.org/2019/01/06/682641732/at-least-30-workers-killed-in-afghanistan-gold-mine-collapse and India[12]Bisoee, A. 2022. Researchers at Indian School of Mines Warns of Landslides in Uttarakhand. Telegraph India … Continue reading. Sustainable Development Goal 8.7 augurs for effective measures for ending human trafficking, modern slavery and forced labor in all their forms. This is particularly essential given the correlation of climate-risk disaster risks embedded in the aforementioned types of gender-based violence[13]Robin Van Daalen, K., Kallesøe, S.S., Davey, F. et al. 2022. Extreme Events and Gender Based Violence: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. Lancet Planet Health.
Onset of disaster
The nature of disasters has an impact on disaster preparedness and response strategies. Rapid onset disasters such as cyclones and earthquakes and slow or protracted onset disasters such as disasters result in variegated repercussions for community members. Disasters are always a mix of natural and anthropogenic causes.
In a ‘natural’ disaster, women in Bangladesh experience restrictions in movement due to purdah system or the decision-making power vested with the male heads of the households. This delays the evacuation of women[14]Shagazatov, M., Woods, Z. 2021. Gender-Inclusive Legislative Framework and Laws to Strengthen Women’s Resilience to Climate Change and Disasters. Asian Development Bank if men of the household are absent during pre-disaster alerts. Women as caregivers further add to delayed evacuation during disasters and stagger post-disaster recoveries for them as they prioritize rescuing the elders in the family. Gender responsive disaster management and risk reduction strategies are therefore imminent. It is also worth noting that socio-cultural contexts embedded in South Asia requires a streamlined approach to handling of the disaster lifecycle continuum. The security of tenure regarding land and natural resource management enhance impediments for women and girls in the aftermath of climate change related disasters in South Asia. In this regard, dalit and indigenous women find themselves positioned unfavorably to a greater extent due to caste and ethnicity-based subjugations. The pre-existing structural inequalities of society positioning women at a disadvantageous power dynamic get exacerbated by disasters.
Reorientation of gender dynamics due to the sudden or protracted onset of climate disasters shifts how masculinities are experienced by men and those in their environment. Suicides by male farmers amounts to sudden disruption of lives that carries multiplier negative effects for women and girls of the household, with surmounting trap of debt cycle remaining[15]Jamal, A. 2010. Harvest of Grief. Culture Unplugged. Farmer suicides are a normalized feature[16]‘Farmer Commits Suicide After ‘Failing to Pay Loans Due to Crop Damage’. 2022. The Financial Express … Continue reading of rural distress in South Asia. Pakistan’s Thar region is witnessing natural resource extraction in the name of developmental projects with growing dust storms and erratic climate[17]Kohari, A. 2022. The Mystifying Rise of Suicide in Pakistan’s Thar Desert. Al-Jazeera https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/mystifying-rise-suicide-pakistans-thar-desert displacing entire families to urban areas, women girls and young boys committing suicides. Unpacking of masculinities of the indigenous male figures in context of South Asia[18]Chandrima Chakraborty, (2015)Mapping South Asian Masculinities Men and Political Crises … Continue reading in pre-disaster context will facilitate in designing post-disaster reintegration programs, particularly how men’s relation to ecology undergoes continuous changes due to climate change[19]Van der Heyden, K. 2021. MenEngage Ubuntu Symposium summaries Men, Masculinities and Climate Justice. MenEngageAlliance … Continue reading. Studies regarding GBV inflicted on males in disaster settings are entirely missing[20]Unseen, Unheard: Gender-Based Violence In Disasters: Global Study. 2015. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies … Continue reading. Linkages between disaster risk reduction and the reorientation of hegemonic masculinities[21]Enarson, E., Pease B. 2016. Men, Masculinities and Disaster. Routledge https://www.routledge.com/Men-Masculinities-and-Disaster/Enarson-Pease/p/book/9781138324602 and marginal masculinities due to climate related disasters reconfigure the gendered dynamics between queer, cis-gendered folks in the aftermath of a disaster. This is reflected in the changed intra-household and community dynamics[22]Enarson, E., Pease B. 2016. Men, Masculinities and Disaster. Routledge https://www.routledge.com/Men-Masculinities-and-Disaster/Enarson-Pease/p/book/9781138324602 between men and women.
Post-disaster
Interlinkages between illicit economies and climate-related disasters get strengthened due to high internal rural-urban migration[23]Selby, S. Perez-Dalena, M.G., 2020. Risk-Informed Development: A Strategy Tool for Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation into Development. United Nations Development … Continue reading Structural impediments obstruct girls and women[24]Glemarec, Y., C., Qayum, S., Olshanskaya, M., 2016. Leveraging Co-Benefits Between Gender Equality and Climate Action For Sustainable Development: Mainstreaming Gender Considerations in Climate … Continue reading from all dimensions of climate change decision-making.
Anti-Slavery International[25]Bharadwaj, R., Bishop, D., Hazra, S., Pufaa, E., Annan, J.K. (2021). Climate-Induced Migration and Modern Slavery: A Toolkit for Policymakers. Anti-Slavery International and International Institute … Continue reading includes child marriage, forced begging and human trafficking as well in forms of modern slavery. UNICEF confirms that climate change forces girls to explore pathways that endanger them to modern slavery. Physical, sexual and emotional abuse is possible when girls collect firewood, water and food or live at refugee camps. In India, a sequence of droughts pushes young girls into trafficking rings[26]Coelho, C. 2016. The Climate Change and Human Trafficking Nexus. International Organization for Migration https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mecc_infosheet_climate_change_nexus.pdf as traffickers recruit pre-harvest or during drought across Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu. Unsustainable mining activities are den of such modern economic slavery. Pre-Disaster Disaster Risk Assessments record the informal work for women such as domestic work, whereas the formal work they are engaged with is menial such as garment factory. The informalized nature of their work in pre-disaster scenario impacts their post-disaster rehabilitation.
As reported by Human Rights Watch in 2015, in case of Bangladesh, disaster-induced impoverishment triggers coping strategies[27]Marry Before Your House Is Swept Away: Child Marriage in Bangladesh. 2015. Human Rights Watch https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/bangladesh0615_web.pdf like transactional sex, child marriage and human trafficking for poor households in urban and rural scenarios. The lack of social safety nets such as insurance, access to institutional finance increases the economic dependence of women in the post-disaster setting. Higher involvement of women in the informal sector of the economy prior to disasters, particularly, agriculture puts them at a disadvantage for disaster risk financing and loans for reconstruction.
71% of blended finance by 2020 under the Official Development Assistance for climate justice constitutes debt rather than grants[28]Aggregate Trends of Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries. 2022. OECD … Continue reading. Concomitantly, the Global South countries are engaged five times more in debt repayments rather than creating climate resilient development[29]Woolfenden, T. Khushal, S.S. 2022. The Debt and Climate Crises: Why Climate Justice Must Include Debt Justice.OECD … Continue reading. Climate-related disasters involve debt traps for females, as they get enmeshed in informal debt financed recoveries[30]Feminist Analyses of COP 27 Climate Finance Outcomes. Feminist Action Nexus: Economic and Climate Justice … Continue reading,[31]Sallan, I.F. 2020. Debt and Climate: Entangled Emergencies Derailing Women’s Rights and Gender Justice, Gender & Development, 28:3, 499-513, DOI: 10.1080/13552074.2020.1838168. Disappearance of official documents regarding national identity and voter identification papers during climate disasters present challenges in reconstruction programs and aid delivery for women. Literature creating linkages between homelessness and climate related disasters across Bangladesh, India and Pakistan is largely amiss. A climate related disaster already reduces decision making powers within the hands of female and female headed households. Female headed households[32]Habtezion, S. 2016. Gender, Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction. Global Gender and Climate Alliance and UN Women … Continue reading undergo exclusion in case of insurance payout when government is cognizant of male assets for insurance cover[33]Gender Analysis in Technical Areas. 2022. UN Women https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2022-12/Gender%20Analysis%20Guidance-final.pdf.
As administrative and civil structures are weakened, incidences of domestic violence, alcoholism and Sexual and Gender Based Violence (SGBV) of women and children gain incremental rise than prior to disasters[34]Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Disaster Recovery. 2018. Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction and World Bank … Continue reading . Dr. Jenny Moreno Romero, Assistant Professor at University of Concepcion and Prof. Duncan Shaw, Professor at University of Manchester assert that temporal dismantling of patriarchal structuring of household with women emerging as community leaders and recovery agents takes place, only to get reinstated as the post-disaster households slide back into the patriarchal dynamics of families in the pre-disaster timeline[35]Romero, J.M., Shaw, D. (2018). Women’s Empowerment Following Disaster: A Longitudinal Study of Social Change. 2018. Natural Hazards. Volume 92 Issue 2 … Continue reading in some measure. Nonetheless, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) claim in their guidance note, published in 2018, that once recovery and reconstruction have taken place, the sudden empowerment of women does not get replaced by a ‘return to normalcy'[36]Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Disaster Recovery. 2018. Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction and World Bank … Continue reading of the pre-disaster scenario. In fact, GFDRR reiterates the importance of evaluating intra-household dynamics – that familial structures can be sites of competing interests and conflicts and do not reflect homogenous entities. Therefore, GFDRR advocates that assessment tools for disaster risk analysis require sex, age and disability disaggregated data (SADDD). Such intersectional data will facilitate create gender responsive state led policies on disaster risk reduction and disaster management overall.
When we study how post-disaster impediments gender minorities and women go through in the post-disaster recovery phase, it is worth noting that quantitiative gender disaggregated data alone will not suffice. The qualitiative narrations of the conditions of disaster relief shelters and disaster rescue operations are equally pertinent.
Droughts, floods and cyclones are common occurrences that wreak havoc for Pakistan’s developmental economy. Pakistan’s National Disaster Management Authority has constituted gender and child cells within the organization. Women and child insecurity get aggravated as high-density areas[37]Pakistan Country Gender Assessment. 2016. Asian Development Bank https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/218821/pak-gender-assessment-vol1.pdf of Northeast Pakistan along the Indus river replete with ‘natural’ disasters cause massive displacement and related gender-based violence. The fishermen on the island state of Maldives leave their homes for prolonged periods with women of the household taking care of the agricultural land and uncertain weather and climate-related disasters disrupting entire farms and houses. Any climate-related disaster halts the inter-island transportation[38]A Scoping Study: Interlinkages of Climate Change and Sexual Reproductive Health and Rights of Women in Maldives. 2015. Asia-Pacific Resource and Research Centre for Women … Continue reading for these women to access health related services. Variations in sea surface temperatures towards the higher end will affect the coral reefs and other marine life[39]Climate Risk Country Profile: Maldives (2021): The World Bank Group and the Asian Development Bank https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/672361/climate-risk-country-profile-maldives.pdf within the Indian Ocean, mainly impacting the livelihood of fishing communities in Sri Lanka and Maldives.
Women find lack of privacy in shelters for disaster rescue which adversely impacts their mental health besides violation of their Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights (SRHR). Health emergencies can cause exponential expenditure for households[40]Kovats, S., Llyod, S., Scovronick, N,. 2014. Climate and Health in Informal Urban Settlements. https://www.iied.org/10719iie already experiencing disaster induced impoverishment. Resultantly, family members are structurally coerced to send their young women to intermediaries and local agents of trafficking in South Asia[41]Coelho, C. 2016. The Climate Change and Human Trafficking Nexus. International Organization for Migration https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mecc_infosheet_climate_change_nexus.pdf. Pregnant women are highly susceptible to physical and psychological strains due to poor facilities at relief shelters. Separate Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) facilities and adequate lighting in relief shelters are desirable basic necessities which continue to be less prevalent. Pre-existing poor-nutrition based diets in districts[42]Key Immediate Needs and Preliminary Impact Assessment: North Eastern Flash Flood, Bangladesh. 2022. CARE … Continue reading getting affected by sudden onset disasters further deteriorate nutrition insecurity by adding to wasting and undernutrition among children and women, such as in Sylhet division in Bangladesh[43]Key Immediate Needs and Preliminary Impact Assessment: North Eastern Flash Flood, Bangladesh. 2022. CARE … Continue reading. It is thus essential to establish women and girls-led climate risk resilience in order to manage and cohere gender-responsive strategies to climate-related disasters in South Asia.
Globally, the General Recommendation 37 by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) underscores the significance of women-led climate risk resilience required for disaster risk management[44] The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. UN Women … Continue reading. Nonetheless, context-specific localizing of Climate resilient strategies for disaster risk reduction are the need of the hour. Therefore, we need to further build on the CEDAW recommendations.
Scopes for Action: En-gendering Climate-Resilient Strategies related to disaster Risk Reduction
This section of the analysis elucidates on the tangible positive case studies as well as policy loopholes across disaster management strategies of South Asia. In Nepal, cash assistance programs[45]Nesbitt-Ahmed, Z. 2017. Emergency Cash Transfers and Women’s Economic Empowerment in Post-Earthquake Nepal. International Institute for Environment and Development … Continue reading in post-earthquake scenario may have temporarily empowered women as they are one-off coping mechanism, as far as their economic agency is concerned. Such an approach however fails to address the deep-rooted inequalities in decision making for these women.
Chaman Pincha, an expert gender and development researcher and consultant across International Non-Government Organizations (INGOs), brings to light the physical harm experienced by the transgenders from Tamil Nadu, who go by the label of aravanis locally, during the tsunami of 2004. Comprehension of disasters must go beyond cis-normative and heteronormative paradigms[46]Tran, T.T. 2021. Queering Disasters: Embodied Crises in P Queering Disasters: Embodied Crises in Post- Harvey Houston. University of Tennessee, https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/6141 ; otherwise, natural disasters will continue to exacerbate social marginalization for hitherto marginalized LGBTQ+ communities. In fact, the families of the aravanis who lost their lives did not receive any government compensation either[47]Pincha, C., Kirshna, H. 2008. Aravanis: Voiceless Victims of the Tsunami. Humanitarian Practice Network. Queering of climate disasters is what is essential to provide a holistic gender transformative matrix of analyses. Gender responsive strategies for climate change induced disasters go beyond the gender norms of men and women binaries. Queering disasters in light of the climate crisis[48]Bhardwaj, V. 2023. Queering Disasters In Light Of the Climate Crisis. Gender Institute in Geopolitics, https://igg-geo.org/?p=10929&lang=en is more relevant to policy discourse as has also been reiterated in numerous studies based in Small Island Developing States[49]Scott, McKinnon, Andrew Gorman-Murray, Dale Dominey-Howes. 2014. “Queer Domicide: LGBT Displacement and Home Loss in Natural Disaster Impact, Response, and Recovery” Home Cultures, Volume 11, … Continue reading.
Delineation of broader and specific points of action that can be undertaken to execute gender-responsive strategies for climate-related disasters in South Asia is as follows:
- National Disaster Risk Management laws should be gender-sensitive. National Disaster Plans indicate the exclusion of gendered analysis and risk assessments.
- South Asia being the least integrated geopolitical region needs to consolidate its footing in areas of non-traditional security challenges. Cooperation on disaster management frameworks in climate change-induced disasters can mainstream the discourse of climate mitigation and adaptation in the subcontinent.
- Landlocked countries like Bhutan and Nepal have higher converging issues related to disaster mitigation whereas other countries having coastal geographies need to undertake studies on gender-specific responses to disasters by their coastal communities. Gendered disaster management policies for the island state of Maldives present an altogether differentiated context.
- The de-hyphenation of South Asian politics from Kashmir will bring forth engagement in South Asian nation-states around disaster recovery response to disasters related to climate crisis. Women political leaders in the subcontinent can push for such a political agenda.
- Physically disabled and geriatric sensitive disaster risk reduction and recovery policies need to be tailored as per localized contexts.
- Social Sector Economy (SSE) initiatives that build spaces for economic agency for women in post-disaster recovery economy.
- Indigenous knowledge on climate-resilient housing (stilts used in Assamese architecture), do-it-yourself embankments using gunny sacks.
- Recovery programs need to be tailored as conducive to all female households and widows.
- Collection of gender disaggregated data and gender analysis regarding loss and damage caused due to climate disasters.
- News pooling agencies in vernacular languages will become inclusive of indigenous populations who undertake short and long term distress migration. It will also facilitate a holistic pre-disaster warning system.
- Setting up local disaster risk reduction management committees as in Philippines.
- Reconstruction programs need to have higher involvement of women-led organizations in disaster management.
Leadership by women and gender-diverse folks in disaster risk and disaster management remains bleak as the visibility of women in South Asian itself remains negligible. Stringent policies regarding climate change can be formed with adequate female parliamentarians at the national level[50]Mavisakalyan, A. Tarverdi, Y. 2019. Gender and Climate Change: Do Female Parliamentarians Make Difference. European Journal of Political Economy. Volume 56. pp. 151-164 … Continue reading. It will take 197 years to close the gender gap in South Asia[51]Global Gender Gap Report, 2022. World Economic Forum https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf, the worst-performing region in the Global Gender Gap Report 2022. Political under-representation of females in South Asia has prevented climate change from getting mainstreamed and addressed in South Asian politics. South Asian women political leaders can provide gender-responsive climate diplomacy in the region.
On a positive note, disasters can introduce long-term transformations in gender dynamics even in highly patriarchal contexts and the resilient adaptive capacity[52]Romero, J.M., Shaw, D. (2018). Women’s Empowerment Following Disaster: A Longitudinal Study of Social Change. 2018. Natural Hazards. Volume 92 Issue 2 … Continue reading of marginalized stakeholders can come forward in full light. South Asian politics requires consolidation and politics of shared interests which can be best built around mainstreaming[53]Applying a gender lens to climate actions: why it matters, Climate Talks Series: CARE for South Asia Project . 2021. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center … Continue reading of climate crisis in policy discourse around gender-specific strategies[54]Kuriakose, A.T., Kerr, T. 2023. Putting Women at the Heart of Climate Action Across South Asia. World Bank Blogs … Continue reading for disaster management.
The statements in this article are the sole responsibility of the author.
To quote this article : Vani Bhardwaj (2023). Gender Responsive Strategies for Climate-Related Disasters in South Asia. Gender in Geopolitics Institute https://igg-geo.org/?p=15234&lang=en
References
| ↑1 | 225 Million Displacements in Asia and Pacific Due to Disasters, As Impact of Climate Change Deepens, Says New ADB Report. 2022. Asian Development Bank https://www.adb.org/news/225-million-displacements-asia-and-pacific-due-disasters-impact-climate-change-deepens |
|---|---|
| ↑2 | Kugelman, M. 2021. South Asia is on the Frontlines of the Climate Crisis. Foreign Policy |
| ↑3 | IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 3056 pp., doi:10.1017/9781009325844 https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/ |
| ↑4 | Ober, Kayly. 2019. The Links Between Climate Change, Disasters, Migration and Social Resilience in Asia: A Literature Review. Asian Development Bank |
| ↑5 | Mani, M., Bandyopadhyay, S. 2018. South Asia’s Hotspots: The Impact of Temperature and Precipitation Changes on Living Standards. World Bank Group |
| ↑6 | Rezwana, N., Pain, R. 2020. Gender-Based Violence Before, During And After Cyclones: Slow Violence and Layered Disasters. Disasters. Volume 45. Issue4. Wiley https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12441 |
| ↑7 | Gender in Humanitarian Action Working Group: Rapid Gender Analysis of Flood Situation in North and North-Eastern Bangladesh, June 2022. Government of Bangladesh and UN Women https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/gender-humanitarian-action-working-group-rapid-gender-analysis-flood-situation-north-and-north-eastern-bangladesh-june-2022 |
| ↑8 | Takamatsu, M., Palma J., 2020. How South Asia Can Protect Life and and Assets and Against Landslides https://blogs.worldbank.org/endpovertyinsouthasia/how-south-asia-can-protect-life-and-assets-against-landslides |
| ↑9 | Building Resilient Transport in the South Asia Region. 2020. Global Facilitation for Disaster Risk Reduction https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hMM3CWG1qA0 |
| ↑10 | Aggarwal, M. 2021. Ignored and Invisible: The Burden of Mining on Women. Mongabay https://india.mongabay.com/2021/01/ignored-and-invisible-the-burden-of-mining-on-women/ |
| ↑11 | Edes, A. 2019. At Least 30 Workers Killed in Afghanistan Gold Mine Collapse. NPR https://www.npr.org/2019/01/06/682641732/at-least-30-workers-killed-in-afghanistan-gold-mine-collapse |
| ↑12 | Bisoee, A. 2022. Researchers at Indian School of Mines Warns of Landslides in Uttarakhand. Telegraph India https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/researchers-at-indian-school-of-mines-warns-of-landslides-at-several-locations-along-nh-108-in-uttarakhand/cid/1873331 |
| ↑13 | Robin Van Daalen, K., Kallesøe, S.S., Davey, F. et al. 2022. Extreme Events and Gender Based Violence: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. Lancet Planet Health |
| ↑14 | Shagazatov, M., Woods, Z. 2021. Gender-Inclusive Legislative Framework and Laws to Strengthen Women’s Resilience to Climate Change and Disasters. Asian Development Bank |
| ↑15 | Jamal, A. 2010. Harvest of Grief. Culture Unplugged |
| ↑16 | ‘Farmer Commits Suicide After ‘Failing to Pay Loans Due to Crop Damage’. 2022. The Financial Express https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/national/country/farmer-commits-suicide-after-failing-to-pay-loans-due-to-crop-damage-1654881277 |
| ↑17 | Kohari, A. 2022. The Mystifying Rise of Suicide in Pakistan’s Thar Desert. Al-Jazeera https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/mystifying-rise-suicide-pakistans-thar-desert |
| ↑18 | Chandrima Chakraborty, (2015)Mapping South Asian Masculinities Men and Political Crises https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315712338/mapping-south-asian-masculinities-chandrima-chakraborty |
| ↑19 | Van der Heyden, K. 2021. MenEngage Ubuntu Symposium summaries Men, Masculinities and Climate Justice. MenEngageAlliance https://menengage.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Men-masculinities-and-climate-justice-MenEngage-Ubuntu-Symposium-Discussion-Paper-EN.pdf |
| ↑20 | Unseen, Unheard: Gender-Based Violence In Disasters: Global Study. 2015. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies https://www.ifrc.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/1297700-Gender-based%20Violence%20in%20Disasters-EN.pdf |
| ↑21, ↑22 | Enarson, E., Pease B. 2016. Men, Masculinities and Disaster. Routledge https://www.routledge.com/Men-Masculinities-and-Disaster/Enarson-Pease/p/book/9781138324602 |
| ↑23 | Selby, S. Perez-Dalena, M.G., 2020. Risk-Informed Development: A Strategy Tool for Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation into Development. United Nations Development Programme https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2021-10/UNDP-Risk-Informed-Development-Strategy-Tool-for-Integrating-DRR-and-CC-Adaptation-into-Development.pdf |
| ↑24 | Glemarec, Y., C., Qayum, S., Olshanskaya, M., 2016. Leveraging Co-Benefits Between Gender Equality and Climate Action For Sustainable Development: Mainstreaming Gender Considerations in Climate Change Projects. UN Women https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/2021-05/LEVERAGING%20CO-BENEFITS%20BETWEEN%20GENDER%20EQUALITY%20AND%20CLIMATE%20ACTION%20FOR%20SUSTAINABLE%20DEVELOPMENT.pdf |
| ↑25 | Bharadwaj, R., Bishop, D., Hazra, S., Pufaa, E., Annan, J.K. (2021). Climate-Induced Migration and Modern Slavery: A Toolkit for Policymakers. Anti-Slavery International and International Institute for Environment and Development https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/2021-09/20441G.pdf |
| ↑26, ↑41 | Coelho, C. 2016. The Climate Change and Human Trafficking Nexus. International Organization for Migration https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mecc_infosheet_climate_change_nexus.pdf |
| ↑27 | Marry Before Your House Is Swept Away: Child Marriage in Bangladesh. 2015. Human Rights Watch https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/bangladesh0615_web.pdf |
| ↑28 | Aggregate Trends of Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries. 2022. OECD https://www.oecd.org/climate-change/finance-usd-100-billion-goal/aggregate-trends-of-climate-finance-provided-and-mobilised-by-developed-countries-in-2013-2020.pdf |
| ↑29 | Woolfenden, T. Khushal, S.S. 2022. The Debt and Climate Crises: Why Climate Justice Must Include Debt Justice.OECD https://climatenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Debt-and-the-Climate-Crisis-Briefing-October-2022.pdf |
| ↑30 | Feminist Analyses of COP 27 Climate Finance Outcomes. Feminist Action Nexus: Economic and Climate Justice https://action-nexus.medium.com/feminist-analysis-of-cop27-climate-finance-outcomes-63a4bf43b3c3 |
| ↑31 | Sallan, I.F. 2020. Debt and Climate: Entangled Emergencies Derailing Women’s Rights and Gender Justice, Gender & Development, 28:3, 499-513, DOI: 10.1080/13552074.2020.1838168 |
| ↑32 | Habtezion, S. 2016. Gender, Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction. Global Gender and Climate Alliance and UN Women https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/publications/UNDP%20Gender,%20Adaptation%20and%20DRR%20Policy%20Brief%202-WEB.pdf |
| ↑33 | Gender Analysis in Technical Areas. 2022. UN Women https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2022-12/Gender%20Analysis%20Guidance-final.pdf |
| ↑34, ↑36 | Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Disaster Recovery. 2018. Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction and World Bank https://www.gfdrr.org/en/publication/gender-equality-and-womens-empowerment-disaster-recovery |
| ↑35, ↑52 | Romero, J.M., Shaw, D. (2018). Women’s Empowerment Following Disaster: A Longitudinal Study of Social Change. 2018. Natural Hazards. Volume 92 Issue 2 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323139227_Women%27s_empowerment_following_disaster_a_longitudinal_study_of_social_change |
| ↑37 | Pakistan Country Gender Assessment. 2016. Asian Development Bank https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/218821/pak-gender-assessment-vol1.pdf |
| ↑38 | A Scoping Study: Interlinkages of Climate Change and Sexual Reproductive Health and Rights of Women in Maldives. 2015. Asia-Pacific Resource and Research Centre for Women https://arrow.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Climate-Change-and-SRHR-Scoping-Study_Maldives.pdf |
| ↑39 | Climate Risk Country Profile: Maldives (2021): The World Bank Group and the Asian Development Bank https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/672361/climate-risk-country-profile-maldives.pdf |
| ↑40 | Kovats, S., Llyod, S., Scovronick, N,. 2014. Climate and Health in Informal Urban Settlements. https://www.iied.org/10719iie |
| ↑42, ↑43 | Key Immediate Needs and Preliminary Impact Assessment: North Eastern Flash Flood, Bangladesh. 2022. CARE https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/key-immediate-needs-and-preliminary-impact-assessment-north-eastern-flash-flood-may-2022-bangladesh |
| ↑44 | The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. UN Women https://wrd.unwomen.org/index.php/practice/resources/convention-elimination-all-forms-discrimination-against-women-cedaw#:~:text=The%20General%20Recommendation%2037%20of%20the%20CEDAW%20Committee,women%20with%20regard%20to%20disaster%20and%20climate%20risk |
| ↑45 | Nesbitt-Ahmed, Z. 2017. Emergency Cash Transfers and Women’s Economic Empowerment in Post-Earthquake Nepal. International Institute for Environment and Development https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/10851IIED.pdf |
| ↑46 | Tran, T.T. 2021. Queering Disasters: Embodied Crises in P Queering Disasters: Embodied Crises in Post- Harvey Houston. University of Tennessee, https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/6141 |
| ↑47 | Pincha, C., Kirshna, H. 2008. Aravanis: Voiceless Victims of the Tsunami. Humanitarian Practice Network |
| ↑48 | Bhardwaj, V. 2023. Queering Disasters In Light Of the Climate Crisis. Gender Institute in Geopolitics, https://igg-geo.org/?p=10929&lang=en |
| ↑49 | Scott, McKinnon, Andrew Gorman-Murray, Dale Dominey-Howes. 2014. “Queer Domicide: LGBT Displacement and Home Loss in Natural Disaster Impact, Response, and Recovery” Home Cultures, Volume 11, Issue 2, pp 237-262 https://doi.org/10.2752/175174214X13891916944751 |
| ↑50 | Mavisakalyan, A. Tarverdi, Y. 2019. Gender and Climate Change: Do Female Parliamentarians Make Difference. European Journal of Political Economy. Volume 56. pp. 151-164 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.08.001 |
| ↑51 | Global Gender Gap Report, 2022. World Economic Forum https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf |
| ↑53 | Applying a gender lens to climate actions: why it matters, Climate Talks Series: CARE for South Asia Project . 2021. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center https://wrd.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2021-11/2021-q74Xpc-ADPC-Gender_Mainstreaming_Policy_Brief-ADPC.pdf |
| ↑54 | Kuriakose, A.T., Kerr, T. 2023. Putting Women at the Heart of Climate Action Across South Asia. World Bank Blogs https://blogs.worldbank.org/endpovertyinsouthasia/putting-women-heart-climate-action-across-south-asia |