The Deconstruction of Gender Norms Associated With the Exercise of Power By Men: the Example of José Mujica in Uruguay

Translated by Abra Rosaline

José Mujica is one of the founders of the National Liberation Movement – Tupamaros (MLN-T), an urban guerrilla group that emerged in Uruguay in the 1960s, following the Cuban revolution. In 1972, the military structure was dismantled, and its leaders were imprisoned until the end of the authoritarian regime in 1984^[1]Adolfo Garcé. (2010). De guerrilleros a gobernantes: El proceso de adaptación del MLN-Tupamaros a la legalidad y a la competencia electoral en Uruguay (1985-2009). Universidade de Santiago de … Continue reading. After his release, José Mujica played a key role in Uruguay’s democratic transition. He re-engaged in political life as a member of the MLN-T, and the group abandoned its guerrilla activities to participate in the political process^[2]Adolfo Garcé. (2010). De guerrilleros a gobernantes: El proceso de adaptación del MLN-Tupamaros a la legalidad y a la competencia electoral en Uruguay (1985-2009). Universidade de Santiago de … Continue reading. The moderation of discourse of the MLN-T, introduced by José Mujica, allowed for the expansion of the targeted electorate, notably through the party’s affiliation with the center-left political coalition of the Broad Front.

Hence, José Mujica succeeded in adapting a guerrilla organization to electoral competition through the establishment of innovative leadership, as opposed to the image of the ruler promoted under the dictatorship^[3]Adolfo Garcé. (2010). De guerrilleros a gobernantes: El proceso de adaptación del MLN-Tupamaros a la legalidad y a la competencia electoral en Uruguay (1985-2009). Universidade de Santiago de … Continue reading. Social control resulting from the imposition of informal norms is particularly pronounced in regions of the world that have experienced dictatorial, authoritarian, and military regimes. These regimes have favoured the maintenance and strengthening of the idea that men perceived as strong and virile are better leaders. Yet, Latin America has been particularly affected by the emergence of authoritarian regimes since the 1960s. Thus, the regional political context could have influenced the Uruguayan political model. However, José Mujica managed to equip the MLN-T with the capacity to defend ideas very different from those advocated previously, without losing its political identity^[4]Adolfo Garcé. (2010). De guerrilleros a gobernantes: El proceso de adaptación del MLN-Tupamaros a la legalidad y a la competencia electoral en Uruguay (1985-2009). Universidade de Santiago de … Continue reading. 

José Mujica was elected as a deputy in 1995 and as a senator in 2000. He also served as Minister of Agriculture under the presidency of Tabaré Vázquez (2005-2010). In 2009, Mujica won the presidential election, challenging traditional norms associated with masculinity in politics and rejecting those often associated with guerrilla contexts^[5]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. J

He therefore adopted a more inclusive and participatory approach to leadership. The exercise of power by men is closely governed by norms that dictate expected behaviours based on gender. These norms, deeply rooted in societies, perpetuate specific expectations associated with masculinity. Traditionally, male power is linked to characteristics such as dominance, competitiveness, strength, and assertiveness. Men in positions of power are consequently evaluated based on their adherence to these norms, reinforcing a stereotypical view of masculinity. However, José Mujica questioned the idea that male power must be exercised in an authoritarian and unilateral manner.

How did he manage to detach himself from gendered social expectations associated with the exercise of power by men?

Promoting an inclusive masculinity by refusing to adopt outward signs of power

From the moment he entered politics, José Mujica appeared as an unconventional figure: in 1990, shortly after being elected as a deputy member, he arrived at Parliament on a scooter and wearing jeans, only to be denied entry. He subsequently reclaimed this event to challenge the traditional association between men’s physical appearance, in line with social norms regulating political behaviour, and their professional capability. This break from conventional dress expectations was a symbolic act, illustrating Mujica’s deliberate refusal to conform to traditional gendered norms associated with political power. The former President’s initiative aimed to deconstruct prejudices related to physical appearance, thereby creating a space where politicians could be judged based on their actions, ideas, and skills rather than their adherence to rigid gendered norms. By adopting an unconventional approach to his public image, José Mujica paved the way for a deeper questioning of gendered norms^[6]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386, thus embodying austerity and dedication. In this respect, José Mujica’s lifestyle also sparked debates within public opinion and the media regarding the relevance and necessity for leaders to stay connected to the realities of everyday life.

José Mujica also deeply marked his tenure as Minister of Agriculture (2005-2008) by openly embracing his peasant roots. He emphasized his experience in the agricultural sector and highlighted its crucial importance for the country’s affairs. In so doing, he questioned the notion of expertise required to be a minister in a specific field. And by refusing to conform to traditional expectations regarding the appearance and academic background of politicians, he showed that masculinity can embrace a diversity of experiences and skills^[7]Adolfo Garcé. (2010). De guerrilleros a gobernantes: El proceso de adaptación del MLN-Tupamaros a la legalidad y a la competencia electoral en Uruguay (1985-2009). Universidade de Santiago de … Continue reading. 

Gender social norms attribute outward signs of power to men, associated with material and economic privileges. However, José Mujica rejected these symbols of masculinity closely linked to ostentatious displays of wealth and power. Rejecting traditional protocol was a central element of Mujica’s approach to power. The President insisted on maintaining his modest lifestyle, for example. Additionally, he pledged to donate 87% of his salary to social projects of his party^[8]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. Through these actions, the former President demonstrated his commitment to implementing concrete actions for the common good. José Mujica aimed to underscore that outward signs of power have no tangible impact on the well-being of the population, even though they are bestowed upon those tasked with governing the country^[9]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. 

Through his approach to exercising power, José Mujica promoted an inclusive masculinity that acknowledges the dangers of hegemonic gender norms, which impose a singular model of toxic and oppressive masculinity. Inclusive masculinity is characterized by its openness to all men, regardless of their sexual orientation, ethnic origin, social class, or religion. It encourages men to develop their capacity for empathy and compassion. Based on the idea that masculinity is not monolithic, each man has the right to live his masculinity in a unique way^[10]Anderson, E. (2009). Inclusive Masculinity: The Changing Nature of Masculinities. Routledge. 

José Mujica thus offered an alternative and innovative way of governing^[11]Adolfo Garcé. (2010). De guerrilleros a gobernantes: El proceso de adaptación del MLN-Tupamaros a la legalidad y a la competencia electoral en Uruguay (1985-2009). Universidade de Santiago de … Continue reading. Moreover, his popularity did not wane after his presidential term, as he remained a key figure in public debate in Uruguay. He continued to exert moral influence on Uruguayan society, particularly through his ongoing commitment to social issues such as poverty reduction and human rights. He remained active in politics through his role as a senator, which allowed him to participate in parliamentary debates. Additionally, the former president was invited to participate in international forums such as the 2018 International Forum on Democracy.

Listening to the public at the heart of a policy to revitalize social participation

José Mujica’s participatory approach deeply influenced political dynamics in Uruguay by rejecting the idea of political dominance over civil society. Mujica aimed to reduce the gap between politics and civil society, placing the Uruguayan population at the centre of decision-making. The latter then benefited from an active voice in decisions affecting it, such as the consultation of feminist organizations in the drafting of the law on the legalization of abortion. Additionally, in 2010, Mujica’s government established the National Council for Social Participation, a consultative body that allowed civil society to contribute to the development of public policies^[12]Réforme sociale. (2011). Ministère du développement social. … Continue reading. This reflects a form of active listening to the concerns of Uruguayans and genuine participatory democracy^[13]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. 

Regarding the representation of women in politics, President Mujica’s government was nearly gender-balanced, with the presence of five female ministers out of thirteen. This was the first government in Latin America to achieve such a ratio, illustrating his commitment to gender equality. While some ministers resigned during Mujica’s tenure, the gender ratio within the government remained unchanged. Additionally, the proportion of women in Parliament increased from 13% in 2004 to 25% in 2010 due to the adoption of quotas stemming from a bill presented by José Mujica when he was a senator in 2009^[14]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. During Mujica’s tenure, Parliament was able to develop and adopt significant laws related to women’s rights, such as the 2012 law on domestic violence and the 2014 law establishing a support program for women entrepreneurs. His inclusive approach coincides with a phase of expansion of social movements and highlights values such as empathy, collaboration, and the deconstruction of traditional hierarchy in both his speeches and his exercise of power. These values promote the development of relational skills among politicians, which are essential for implementing a policy based on listening rather than dictating^[15]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. 

From 2005, Uruguay witnessed the emergence of autonomous social movements separate from the political party system, highlighting the growing desire of youth to directly influence government decisions. José Mujica’s rise to power in 2010 marked a leftward turn in Uruguay’s public policies, reflecting responsiveness to both past and current mobilizations. In response to the Movement for a Sustainable Uruguay, founded in 2011, which opposed government projects for mining and port exploitation, Mujica cancelled these projects. The country’s social movements succeeded in institutionalizing themselves while maintaining their autonomy, actively participating in the development of progressive policies focused on the needs of the population. José Mujica thus spread the idea that the adversary of the people is not the State but rather the hardcore and conservative core of Uruguayan society^[16]Moreira, C. (2015). Uruguay: social movements during Jose Mujica’s government (2010-2015). Revista do Programa de Pós‑Graduação em Sociologia da USP, 22 66-82. 268346574.pdf (core.ac.uk).

Rejecting individualistic approaches to politics was at the heart of Mujica’s social vision, thus establishing an inspiring model that transcends the individual to awaken a collective identity. This approach, guided by values such as participatory democracy, inclusivity, environmental ethics, and social solidarity, positioned José Mujica as a cultural hero, invigorating political engagement beyond individual rivalries^[17]Sarasqueta, G. (2022). CARTOGRAPHY OF A GLOBAL EPIC: THE POLITICAL STORY OF PRESIDENT JOSÉ MUJICA (2010-2015). Revista internacional de Pensamiento Político, 17, 663-685. Vista de Cartografía de … Continue reading. By fostering the creation of a collective focused on addressing social problems, Mujica sought to curb the persistent emigration of the Uruguayan population – despite the democratic transition, nearly 20,000 people continued to leave the country each year^[18]Morató, V. (2015). Social problems: the demographic emergency in Uruguay. JANUS.NET e-journal of International Relations,6,1. https://repositorio.ual.pt/handle/11144/1757. This emigration can be explained in part by Uruguay’s economic downturn in 2012, due to the imbalance of its trade balance. Inflation, which peaked at 9% in 2014^[19]Banque mondiale. (2024). Uruguay. https://data.worldbank.org/country/uruguay, as well as unemployment affecting 7% of the population in 2015, led people to leave the country^[20]Banque mondiale. (2024). Uruguay. https://data.worldbank.org/country/uruguay. Furthermore, wealth distribution remained highly unequal during Mujica’s tenure, with the Gini coefficient dropping from 0.44 to 0.41^[21]Banque mondiale. (2024). Uruguay. https://data.worldbank.org/country/uruguay. Finally, the significant crime rate in Uruguay is also one of the factors motivating many nationals to settle abroad.

The importance, in Mujica’s speeches, of the idea of pursuing happiness in society

José Mujica justified the pacifist orientation of his policy through his past as a prisoner. The former president was detained for nearly 14 years during the dictatorship, spending 10 of those years in isolation. He reclaimed his past and did not hesitate to evoke his personal story, emphasizing the physical suffering he endured while highlighting the emotional and mental difficulties faced during detention. By going against gender norms, José Mujica challenged the notion of toxic masculinity that associates emotional vulnerability with shame.

Mujica’s commitment to justice and the rejection of all forms of impunity manifested in 2011 with the attempted annulment of amnesty laws that protected certain war criminals who violated humanitarian law during the dictatorship (1973-1985). His action reflects a willingness to confront Uruguay’s past and pursue a collective quest for truth and reconciliation within Uruguayan society between supporters and opponents of the dictatorship. However, the Uruguayan Supreme Court declared this new law unconstitutional in 2013 ^[22]Pitushca, N. (2016). Post-transition human rights performance in Peru, Uruguay, and South Korea. Open AccessDissertations, 739. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/open_access_dissertations/739. José Mujica’s approach is linked to the idea of pursuing happiness and simplicity in society, as expressed in his speeches, such as his intervention in 2012 before the United Nations General Assembly, where he denounced “a civilization against simplicity, against sobriety, against all natural cycles, and, worse, a civilization against the freedom to use time for human relationships, love, friendship, adventure, solidarity, family”^[23]Courrier international. (2013). URUGUAY. Le discours “poétique” du président Mujica plébiscité sur le Net. URUGUAY. URUGUAY. Le discours “poétique” du président Mujica … Continue reading. For José Mujica, the pursuit of happiness can only be fully realized in a context of justice, transparency, and accountability ^[24]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. 

Through his refusal to conform to the stereotype associating professional success with material success, the President of Uruguay attempted to challenge the impact of consumerism on climate change. He was instrumental in state investments in renewable energies, such as solar and wind energy, and he created a national waste management system^[25]Ponce, M. (2017). Pepe Mujica ¿el secreto de la viralidad? Más poder local, 33. 13-15. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=6325973. Mujica thus broke away from the traditional idea linking power to the exploitation of natural resources and the mastery of humans over nature. For him, consumerism is a waste of time at the individual level, as this concept leads to the need to perform thankless tasks in order to have access to various consumer goods^[26]Ponce, M. (2017). Pepe Mujica ¿el secreto de la viralidad? Más poder local, 33. 13-15. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=6325973. In this sense, he advocated for a fundamental cultural change based on education focused on being rather than having. In his opening speech to the Senate, Mujica emphasized the need to socialize individuals differently to reshape power relations between “dominants” and “dominated” and establish a new system of social ties devoid of exploitation. His ambitions in this regard materialized in defining the main objectives that guided his government’s actions. Thus, the fight against poverty translated into the implementation of free education and health programs. The promotion of a social and solidarity economy, on the other hand, was reflected in the continuous consultation and dialogue established with workers’ unions^[27]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. Furthermore, José Mujica’s ideas transcended national borders, as evidenced by his speech at the Rio Summit in 2012, which reached millions of views on YouTube. The President of Uruguay promoted common well-being rather than mere individual satisfaction, emphasizing that social equity must be the essential pillar within international society^[28]Sarasqueta, G. (2022). CARTOGRAPHY OF A GLOBAL EPIC: THE POLITICAL STORY OF PRESIDENT JOSÉ MUJICA (2010-2015). Revista internacionalde Pensamiento Político, 17, 663-685. Vista de Cartografía de … Continue reading. 

Since the 1980s, movements such as the Coordinadora anti-razzias and academic publications, like Rafael Bayce’s, have challenged the prohibitionist approach of successive governments, which strictly banned the sale and consumption of cannabis. Former President Jorge Batle’s position in favor of legalizing all drugs in the 2000s contributed to fuelling the debate, which intensified under the presidency of Tabaré Vasquez marked by a drug war policy. In 2010, José Mujica subsequently seized the opportunity to organize a national debate on the issue, resulting in the cannabis legalization law. However, this law does not imply recognition of the potential benefits associated with “healthy” cannabis consumption. Mujica also increased police personnel to combat drug trafficking and implemented prevention programs aimed at dissuading young Uruguayans from turning to such criminal activity. The president’s objective was to combat drug trafficking and the associated violence in a pragmatic and inclusive approach adapted to the local reality^[29]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. Uruguay has long been considered one of the most stable and safest countries in Latin America, with relatively low crime rates compared to other countries in the region. However, it is important to note that the country has faced challenges related to drug trafficking, gangs, and violence. Mujica sought to curb the violence associated with drug trafficking, which affected public security and health, through increasing police personnel. He also implemented programs for the social reintegration of former inmates aimed at breaking the cycle of exclusion and violence in which some of them may have found themselves.

However, the resources made available to the judiciary were not strengthened during the President’s tenure, resulting in significant pressure on judges and prosecutors. Due to the increasing number of criminal cases and the growing need for resources to ensure law enforcement, the time frame for adjudicating cases was considerably extended. José Mujica thus implemented significant measures to reduce drug-related violence, but institutional and budgetary constraints hindered the full realization of this objective.

Engaging for the defence of minority rights

Mujica also implemented progressive measures aimed at promoting equality and combating racial discrimination. Firstly, he deployed affirmative action policies in the fields of education and employment to increase the insertion and representation of racialized individuals. This materialized through the funding of educational programs and awareness campaigns on indigenous cultures, contributing to combating prejudices and fostering a deeper understanding of Uruguay’s diverse cultural identities. Additionally, he enabled the adoption of a historic law in 2013 regarding the rights of indigenous peoples. This legislation recognizes the collective ownership of ancestral lands and guarantees indigenous peoples the right to their own culture, language, and religion^[30]FIJACION DE DISPOSICIONES CON EL FIN DE FAVORECER LA PARTICIPACION EN LAS AREAS EDUCATIVA Y LABORAL, DE LOS AFRODESCENDIENTES. (2013). Centro de informacion oficial. … Continue reading. The measures taken by José Mujica to raise awareness among the entire Uruguayan population about the country’s cultural diversity strengthened the cultural identity of indigenous communities by highlighting their languages, traditions, and histories. Furthermore, the awareness-raising efforts, addressing stigma and prejudice, may have contributed to greater social inclusion of indigenous communities. Additionally, Mujica also worked towards the creation of a law against racial discrimination in 2013, thereby strengthening the legal framework for combating any form of discrimination based on ethnic origin^[31]FIJACION DE DISPOSICIONES CON EL FIN DE FAVORECER LA PARTICIPACION EN LAS AREAS EDUCATIVA Y LABORAL, DE LOS AFRODESCENDIENTES. (2013). Centro de informacion oficial. … Continue reading. 

José Mujica also reignited the debate regarding the right to abortion in Uruguay. His predecessor Tabare Vasquez had vetoed the law on sexual and reproductive health in 2007. Only interim measures related to pre- and post-abortion care had been implemented through the Napiloti law^[32]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. In 2012, Mujica enabled Uruguay to become the third country on the continent to legalize abortion. According to the new legislation, a woman’s sole desire was sufficient for all health institutions in the country to be required to offer this service. The legalization of abortion aimed to put an end to clandestine clinic networks, particularly used by women from disadvantaged classes, exposing them to significant health risks. This legislative advancement consolidated women’s reproductive rights. However, Uruguayan law also recognizes conscientious objection, allowing healthcare professionals to refuse direct participation in an abortion due to their personal or religious beliefs. The law also mandates healthcare facilities to ensure the availability of a healthcare professional to perform the abortion^[33]Aguiar, S. (2014). Menant la marche : l’Uruguay et ses trois lois avant-gardistes. Cahiers des Amériques latines, 77. https://doi.org/10.4000/cal.3386. 

The implementation of progressive measures for the rights of LGBTI+ individuals was a major component of Mujica’s commitment to equality and diversity. Upon taking office in 2010, José Mujica publicly expressed his support for same-sex marriage, stating that marriage is a fundamental right for all couples, regardless of their sexual orientation^[34]Morató, V. (2015). Social problems: the demographic emergency in Uruguay. JANUS.NET e-journal of International Relations,6,1. Camões – Repositório Institucional da Universidade Autónoma de … Continue reading. In 2012, the President took concrete steps by introducing a bill to legalize marriage for same-sex couples. This bill was developed in collaboration with LGBTI+ organizations and human rights advocates, demonstrating the importance of the involvement of the affected community in the legislative process. José Mujica actively advocated for this law, which was enacted in 2013, meeting with parliamentarians and participating in demonstrations supporting marriage between same-sex individuals. Uruguay thus became the third country in Latin America to legalize marriage for same-sex individuals^[35]Morató, V. (2015). Social problems: the demographic emergency in Uruguay. JANUS.NET e-journal of International Relations,6,1. Camões – Repositório Institucional da Universidade Autónoma de … Continue reading. He also initiated other reforms to promote the rights of LGBTI+ individuals, such as the establishment of specific quotas for trans* people in social programs in 2014, facilitating their access to education, training, and employment. This approach aims to mitigate the obstacles faced by trans* individuals in their daily lives^[36]La construcción de agenda y políticas públicas de diversidad sexual. (2017). OPP. … Continue reading. In 2015, he implemented comprehensive medical care measures, including hormonal treatment. These initiatives demonstrate his commitment to creating a more inclusive and egalitarian Uruguayan society, regardless of individuals’ sexual orientation or gender identity^[37]La construcción de agenda y políticas públicas de diversidad sexual. (2017). OPP. … Continue reading. 

The deconstruction of traditional norms associated with men’s exercise of power, as demonstrated by José Mujica in Uruguay, presents itself as an inspiring model of leadership. Through his political journey marked by a break from conventional expectations of masculinity and power, José Mujica paved the way for a profound reflection on gender norms in the political sphere. By refusing to conform to traditional stereotypes and adopting an inclusive and participatory approach, Mujica transcended individual aspirations to embody a collective vision of governance. Furthermore, his commitment to marginalized communities such as people of colour, women, and LGBTI+ individuals reflects a profound concern for social justice and equality of opportunity. Similarly, his promotion of the importance of dialogue that every government must maintain with civil society speaks to a holistic vision of happiness and justice. Thus, José Mujica’s legacy lies in his ability to challenge gender norms and inspire a new generation of leaders to embrace an inclusive masculinity in which compassion and solidarity guide political action.

To cite this article: Gender in Geopolitics Institute (2024), “The Deconstruction of Traditional Norms Associated With the Exercise of Power By Men: The Example of José Mujica in Uruguay”, https://igg-geo.org/en/2024/10/24/the-deconstruction-of-gender-norms-associated-with-the-exercise-of-power-by-men-the-example-of-jose-mujica-in-uruguay/