Cyber-harassment of women in South Korea

17/07/2023

Article wrote by: Donia Agchar
Translated by: Zoé Llacer

Cyberbullying is a worrisome problem that affects numerous people across the world. In South Korea, this phenomenon is particularly significant and is part of a larger context regarding discrimination and violence, notably towards women. Various forms of cyberbullying, such as verbal abuse, stalking, and online sexual violence, are spreading across the country and those behaviours are becoming more and more frequent from an early age^[1]Jun W. (2020). A Study on the Cause Analysis of Cyberbullying in Korean Adolescents. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(13), 4648. … Continue reading. Statistics from the Police National Bureau show an alarming rise in the number of cyberbullying, with approximately a 45% rise in cases between 2017 and 2020, thus revealing the important scale of the problem^[2]Korean National Police Agency. Statistics > Cyber Investigation. (n.d.). https://www.police.go.kr/eng/statistics/statisticsSm/statistics04.jsp.

A meaningful example of the impact of cyberbullying in South Korea is Cho Jang-mi’s case, a South Korean streamer who ended her life in February 2022 following a wave of online harassment. Accused of being a feminist by many Internet users, Cho had become the target of a campaign of hatred and defamation, also driving her mother to suicide in 2019^[3]Min-Sik, Y. (2022, February 10). Cyber scarlet letter: How online abuse drove YouTuber to death. The Korea Herald. https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20220209000710.

This event demonstrates the tragic consequences of cyberbullying for victims and raises questions regarding the protection and support measures needed. Cho Jang-mi’s case is not an isolated event, and many women in South Korea are facing similar forms of online harassment. Faced with this reality, it is necessary to wonder how cyberstalking fits into a broader context of discrimination and violence against women in South Korea.

Cyberbullying: a gender-based violence first and foremost

Cyberbullying carries a specific dimension as gender-based violence by specifically targeting women in South Korea. South Korean women are confronted with various forms of online harassment, such as slut-shaming^[4]Slut-shaming is a set of individual or collective attitudes that are aggressive towards women whose sexual behaviour is deemed to be “out of the ordinary”. Slut-shaming consists of … Continue reading, molka (pranks in public spaces like in the toilets or hotels/motels, as well as the capture of non-consented images and videos), revenge porn^[5]Revenge porn is sexually explicit content publicly shared online without the consent of the person or persons concerned, as a form of “revenge”. (Wikipedia (n.d.). Revenge porn. … Continue reading) and bullying based on physical appearance.

Another South Korean example of cyberbullying is the one of Sulli, a K-pop star who ended her life in 2019. Sulli was known for her strong persona and her outspokenness, two elements that do not conform to the traditional standards imposed on K-pop female stars that are expected, by the public’s demands, to be “cute and obedient”^[6] BBC News. (2019, October 18). Sulli: The woman who rebelled against the K-pop world. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50051575. A braless picture posted of Sulli led to numerous criticisms and online attacks^[7]Jeon, A. (2019, June 21). “브래지어는 액세서리”…’악플의 밤’ 설리, 설꼭지·마약 루머 다 밝혔다 [“Bra is just an accessory”… Sulli in the show … Continue reading.

Her case illustrates the tendency to bully women as soon as they deviate from the gender norms imposed on them or as they become increasingly popular. It also demonstrates how women are silenced and marginalised in South Korea.

Perpetrators’ behaviours and motivations are to be found in aspects related to male domination and misogyny. Masculinist and anti-feminist ideologies are becoming increasingly influential in South Korea. Clara Delhaye’s paper explores in depth this issue, allowing for a better understanding of the underlying socio-politic aspects present in this dynamic^[8]Clara Delhaye, “ La volonté de la suppression du Ministère de l’égalité des genres par le président Yoon Suk Yeol : reflet d’une société coréenne en proie à un anti-féminisme … Continue reading : the ruling People’s Power Party (PPP), which relies on a masculinist electorate that propagates anti-feminist ideas, makes a significant contribution to this^[9]Draudt, D. (2022, February 8). The South Korean Election’s Gender Conflict and the Future of Women Voters. Council on Foreign Relations. … Continue reading. Cyberbullying is deeply rooted in a discriminatory gender culture and perpetuates violence against women.

Moreover, the prevalence of gender-based harassment starts from an early age in South Korea. According to a study in June 2022 regarding intersectional discrimination, intimidation/online intimidation and, suicidal ideation from young South Korean people^[10]Hyun Lee & Heejung Yi (2022) Intersectional discrimination, bullying/cyberbullying, and suicidal ideation among South Korean youths: a latent profile analysis (LPA), International Journal of … Continue reading, online hateful speeches against women are spreading as soon as secondary school and are viewed by young boys as part of “peer-group” culture. Masculinist ideas are thus instilled from an early age, hence contributing to the perpetuation of harassing behaviours in South Korean society. According to the same study, among teenagers, 76.8% of feminists and 69.2% of young women have been victims of cyberbullying(Hyun Lee & Heejung Yi (2022) Intersectional discrimination, bullying/cyberbullying, and suicidal ideation among South Korean youths: a latent profile analysis (LPA), International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 27:1, 325-336, DOI: 10.1080/02673843.2022.2095214)). A 2021 survey indicates that 15.7% of questioned people aged between 20 and 69 years old have already been confronted with cyber violence, be it as a perpetrator or as a victim^[11]Statista. (2022, December 2). Share of adults having experienced cyber violence South Korea 2021. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1225568/south-korea-adults-share-experiencing-cyber-violence/. These numbers demonstrate the significant place of bullying in the internet sphere in South Korea.

Cyberbullying is not disconnected from women’s everyday lives but rather perpetuates a violence continuum that goes beyond online life. Hostile online behaviours and tendencies are often the reflection of societal norms and gender inequalities widespread in society. In this regard, it is necessary to consider cyberbullying as a manifestation of a wider violent system directed at women.

The impact of cyberbullying on women as a marginalised group: the example of the Nth Room

The “Nth Room” is a mass cyberbullying case that revealed in 2020 the existence of an online chat network in South Korea. In the latter, thousands of members (mostly men) shared explicit content and participated in violent online acts towards women, a quarter of whom were minors^[12]Kim, S. Y. (2020, April 6). Ruling party, gov’t push for abolishing statute of limitations for child sex crime. Yonhap News Agency. https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20200406002200315. The Nth Room victims were faced with rape videos, sexual assaults, and humiliating content broadcast without their knowledge. Accessing some of these chatrooms was not free, thus implying a form of online sexual exploitation on the part of the men who shared these contents. The use of these women as sexual objects with a profitable, gratification, or domination aim demonstrates a true violation of human rights. The videos and pictures of the 103 identified victims (with, among them, 26 underage girls) were sold to approximately 60,000 people^[13][DEBRIEFING] ‘Nth room’: A digital prison of sexual slavery. (2020, March 29). Korea JoongAng Daily. … Continue reading,thus dehumanising the victims through the commercial circulation of these unconsented sexual contents.

The Nth Room case demonstrates a specific form of violence against women and underlines how the internet can be instrumentalized to exert control and domination over them, as well as to inflect traumas. For the victims, the consequences have been devastating in the psychological and emotional realms. The case sparked off a major awakening in South Korea regarding the need to reinforce laws and protective measures for the women victims of cyberbullying^[14]Jeon, Y.J., (2021). ‘n번방’ 사건으로 본 디지털 성범죄 규제현황과 개선과제. 이화젠더법학, 13(3), 1-29. … Continue reading. More so, it also attracted international attention, notably with the broadcasting of Netflix’s documentary series Cyber Hell^[15]Winkelman, N. (2022, May 20). ‘Cyber Hell’ Review: When Chat Rooms Become Sites of Exploitation. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/20/movies/cyber-hell-review.html.

Being cyberbullied as a woman brings numeral social consequences. Victims are often subjected to victim blaming, such as unfair stigmatization and accusations. Their reputation is consequently tarnished, and they can be led to isolate themselves socially, by removing themselves from social media and the public sphere. In addition, the psychological and emotional effects on victims of cyberbullying are profound^[16]Calahan, C. (n.d.). The Effects of Cyberbullying on the Well-Being of Female Adolescents. Applied Psychology OPUS. … Continue reading. Women are often subjected to an additional mental charge, as the molka in South Korea exemplifies^[17]Gunia, A. (2022, March 7). “It Breaks My Heart.” Confronting the Traumatic Impact of South Korea’s Spycam Problem on Women. Time. https://time.com/6154837/open-shutters-south-korea-spycam-molka/, since they must constantly be wary of their surroundings^[18]Goo Hara and the trauma of South Korea’s spy cam victims. (2019, November 29). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50582338. 

At the moment, South Korea does not have a precise tool to evaluate the specific consequences of cyberbullying against women, even though this problem has become more acute with the spread of the internet in the country. However, a significant advancement was made in March 2023 with the innovation of a measuring tool named “Korean Cyberbullying Scale”^[19]전종설 이화여대 교수 “사이버 폭력 피해 객관적 측정 도구 개발” [Ewha Women University Professor Jeon Jong-seol “development of an objective measuring tool against … Continue reading. Following two years of research led by the University for Women Ewha, this tool represents a promising advancement for the study and the prevention of cyberbullying in South Korea since it allows a better evaluation of its consequences, hence contributing to the installation of preventive measures.

The South Korean society: a predisposing context to women being cyberbullied

South Korean society shows some contextual elements forwarding cyberbullying towards women, thus amplifying this problem in the country.

First of all, South Korea is riddled with a patriarchal culture deeply rooted^[20]Park B-J. (2001). Patriarchy in Korean Society. Korea Journal, 41(4),48-73. … Continue reading. Social norms and gender expectations further inequalities and discrimination against women. In this patriarchal culture, women are often subjected to stereotypes and restrictive expectations that limit their freedom and autonomy. Furthermore, beauty standards and aesthetic pressures are major contributors to this phenomenon: women are confronted with unrealistic ideals of beauty and are judged based on their appearance^[21]Salam, M. (30 November 2018). South Korean Women Smash Makeup, and Patriarchy. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/30/style/women-makeup-plastic-surgery-detox.html^[22]Yoon, K. (2022, June 9). Beneath the Surface: The Struggles of Dismantling Lookism in Looks-Obsessed Korea. Stanford University. https://ojs.stanford.edu/ojs/index.php/sjfgss/article/view/2118.This creates an environment conducive not only to online criticism and harassment based on physical appearance but above all to the objectification of women’s bodies and the weight of the male gaze.

South Korean society is characterized by an online hyperconnectivity. In 2021, almost 97.5% of South Koreans used the internet^[23]Statista. (2023). South Korea: internet penetration 2000-2021. https://www.statista.com/statistics/255859/internet-penetration-in-south-korea/, making the country one of the most connected in the world. Moreover, South Korea is known for its internet connection average speed being one of the highest^[24]Statista. (2023). Countries with the fastest average mobile internet speed 2023. https://www.statista.com/statistics/896768/countries-fastest-average-mobile-internet-speeds/. The omnipresence of the internet in the daily life of South Koreans creates an environment propitious for cyberbullying, where perpetrators can virulently spread harmful content. Additionally, in 2020, South Korea’s social media penetration rate was the third in the world, with nearly 87% usage^[25]Shim, W. H. (2020, September 7). Korea’s social media penetration rate ranks third in world. The Korea Herald. https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20200907000815.

One must also pay attention to the anonymity issue surrounding this topic: this barrier exacerbates violence and abusive behaviours, where statements unsaid in the offline sphere are to be found in the online sphere. Bullying is already present in many spheres of South Korean society, such as schools or workplaces. However, these pre-existent harassment dynamics are reflected in cyberbullying, appearing as an extension of those harmful behaviours.

It is necessary to consider these contextual elements to set effective measures for the prevention and protection of women and young women.

Looking for solutions: initiatives and ongoing challenges in the fight against cyberbullying

Despite the growing realisation of this cyberbullying issue in South Korea, measures adopted to combat this form of violence remain insufficient and ineffective.

The current legislation includes the “cyber defamation law”, where since 1995 the 61 article allows for the police to track down perpetrators without the need for the victim to form a complaint^[26]Cybercrime Laws (n.d.). Republic of Korea. https://www.cybercrimelaw.net/Korea.html. However, despite the number of cyberbullying cases reported constantly increasing since 2017, the number of criminal detections decreased, going from 73,1% to 65,2%^[27]Korean National Police Agency. Statistics > Cyber Investigation. (n.d.). https://www.police.go.kr/eng/statistics/statisticsSm/statistics04.jsp.

Reinforcing the current legislation and its application to effectively respond to the cyberbullying problem is thus necessary.

The question of online anonymity remains a key aspect. In 2007, a law was passed to demand the validation of the actual identity of users with their social registration number, to cease online anonymity. However, this law was judged unconstitutional by the South Korean Constitutional Court, thus leading to its repeal in 2012(2012, August 23). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-19357160)). Discussions for the promulgation of Sulli’s Law ^[28]Lim, J. October 25, 2019. Sulli’s Law. The Korea Times Opinion. https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/opinion/2023/06/638_277559.html following the suicide of the K-Pop star, aiming to reconsider online anonymity by restoring the obligation to use a “real name” (which looked unlikely since this very measure was already regarded as unconstitutional) did not come off either.

The anonymity question raises complex problems: on the one hand, it would allow to better monitor perpetrators, but on the other hand, its suppression would endanger women, and the people committed to the rights of women and gender and sexual minorities. These activists would have to lower their voices. In this regard, anonymity protects perpetrators as much as those who want to express themselves freely on any topic without the fear of their identity being disclosed. The anonymity ban also raises questions regarding security issues such as personal data leakage or identity theft.

Initiatives taken by online platforms are thus limited. For instance, the big group Kakao, which detains the most-used internet portals in South Korea, Daum and Naver, deleted the comment section for current affairs regarding entertainment on its Daum portal^[29]J. K.. (July 27, 2020). Insiders Question The Effectiveness Of Disabling Comments On Entertainment News; “Sulli Act” Reportedly No Longer In Talks. Soompi. … Continue reading. This decision follows the suicide of the K-pop star Goo Ha-ra in 2020, then victim of revenge porn and threats by her ex-boyfriend. Similarly, on Naver, the comments including abusive language have been deleted^[30]Lee, H. R. (2022, February 7). Deaths of athlete, streamer ignite calls for harsher punishments for internet trolling. Korea Times. https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/06/113_323370.html.

However, there are difficulties in condemning and punishing perpetrators on non-Korean platforms (such as YouTube, Instagram, or even Facebook, still largely used in South Korea). Reinforced cooperation between South Korean authorities and international platforms is necessary to effectively fight against cyberbullying.

The goal would not be to condemn the form, such as anonymity since even without this option, the acts remain unpunished, but rather the act in itself since the platforms are contributing to this phenomenon. This requires an important moderation system allowing for the withdrawal of harmful comments, or even the banishment of those perpetrators on the platforms. This moderation can be done using their IP address, to which the platforms have access. In the case of South Korea, some platforms give IP addresses to law enforcement agencies when a complaint is lodged. Yet, this happens rarely so, in most cases, the sanctions do not go through^[31]보안쟁이 [Mister Security] (2020, April 22). K통신사 보안담당자가 알려주는 IP추적의 모든 것. [Security manager of K-Telecom company tells you everything about IP tracking]. … Continue reading.This system flaw underlines the necessity to condemn platforms that do not cooperate or that do not regulate these activities.

According to Kim Ju-hee, a feminist activist, cyberbullying does not stop when victims die, which emphasizes the perpetrators’ impunity and the lack of concrete change in South Korean society^[32]En Corée du Sud, les cyber-harceleurs poussent impunément leurs victimes au suicide. (18 février 2022). La Croix. … Continue reading. 

An important recommendation is the installation of a non-discriminatory law aiming to protect gender and sexual minorities who are particularly vulnerable to cyberbullying, such as transgender woman, regardless of their sexual orientation. The promulgation of such a law is desired by many minorities in South Korea, considering the intersectionality of the fight against the various forms of discrimination – racial, gender and sexual – that exist in South Korea.

Women’s rights and civil society organizations have also played an active role in the fight against cyberbullying. Demonstrations such as “My Life is Not Your Porn” in 2018 demonstrated the problem with the molka pranks and called for stricter measures to fight against it^[33]Taylor, A & Kim, M. J. (2018, July 31). “My life is not your porn”: South Korea’s war against spy cameras and sexual harassment. The Independent. … Continue reading. A petition was launched in early 2022 on the presidential website asking for more strict and concrete measures to fight against cyberbullying, but it did not receive any official response and it even disappeared from the official presidential website^[34]Korea: High-profile suicides spark cyber-bullying petition. (2022, February 8). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60303081 ^[35] 대한민국 대통령실 [Office of the President of the Republic of Korea]. (n.d.). Petition no. 604176. https://www.president.go.kr/petitions/604176.

It seems necessary to forbid the sale of mini cameras used for molka and to reinforce the moderation of unconsented pictures and videos present on the internet. However, challenges remain, such as the access ban on pornographic websites in South Korea^[36] Kim, T. K. (2020, December 28). Pornography in South Korea: Digital Sexual Exploitation. Women’s Liberation Front. https://womensliberationfront.org/news/pornography-in-korea. Because of this ban, these sites are hosted on foreign computer servers, thus avoiding control from South Korean authorities. Furthermore, the use of VPN allows South Koreans to access it regardless and even to upload content, whilst having their IP address hidden.

To combat cyberbullying in its entirety, it is thus essential to install prevention and sensibilisation programs from a very young age. The Eoullim program in Korean schools is specifically aimed at educating young people about cyberbullying and preventing this form of violence^[37]Oh, I. S., Cho, K. B., & Park, J. Y. (2021). 토픽 모델링을 통해 분석한 교과연계 사이버폭력 예방 수업에 대한 학생의 인식. [Students’ perceptions of … Continue reading. Ce programme s’inscrit dans le curriculum scolaire obligatoire de l’école primaire au lycée depuis 2015^[38]Park, H. J. (2016). A Study on Effects of Applications for the Aulim School Violence Prevention Program. Korea Citation Index. … Continue reading.  

However, despite the recommendations and actions led by women’s rights organizations and civil society, there is still a lack of concrete and effective measures to tackle the cyberbullying issue in South Korea. Authorities and actors involved must take firmer commitments to guarantee the safety and protection of women and adolescent girls against this form of gender-based violence.

Pour citer cet article : Agchar Donia (2023). Cyber-harassment of women in South Korea. Gender in Geopolitics Institute. https://igg-geo.org/?p=15337&lang=en

The opinions expressed in this article are solely those of the author.