Beyond the Belt and Road Initiative: Navigating Gender Dynamics in China’s Global Development Projects

30.11.2023

Rosário Frada

With the ambition to “build a global community of shared future^[1]Belt and Road Portal. (2019).The Belt and Road Initiative Progress, Contributions and Prospects. https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/86739.html” and a more “inclusive world^[2]Belt and Road Forum. (2023). Building an Open, Inclusive and Interconnected World for Common Development. http://www.beltandroadforum.org/english/n101/2023/1018/c124-1175.html”, China unveiled the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013. Comprising the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st century Maritime Silk Road, the BRI aims to enhance transcontinental cooperation and connectivity, promoting “common prosperity^[3]Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the United Nations Office. (2023). Belt and Road: A Road of Prosperity for the New Era. … Continue reading” through investments in unimpeded trade, strengthened people-to-people ties, financial integration, policy coordination, and infrastructure connectivity^[4]Belt and Road Portal. (2019).The Belt and Road Initiative Progress, Contributions and Prospect. https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/86739.html. Encompassing more 138 countries across Eurasia and Africa – representing over 60% of the global population and one third of the world’s trade and Gross Domestic Product^[5]The World Bank. (2018). Belt and Road Initiative. The World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/regional-integration/brief/belt-and-road-initiative, the BRI is widely viewed as a mechanism for China to realise geopolitical ambitions and expand global engagement^[6]McBride, J., & Berman, N. (2023). China’s Massive Belt and Road Initiative. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive-belt-and-road-initiative. 

In the context of China’s official commitment to gender equality as a “basic state policy^[7]Martina, M., &  Nichols, M. (2015). China’s Xi Touts Women’s Rights at United Nations, U.S. Critical. Reuters. … Continue reading”, as announced by President Xi Jinping, and its distinct approach to reforming the global governance system^[8]Ruwanpura, K., & Ferdoush, M. (2023). Gendering the BRI: A Viewpoint, Gender, Place & Culture, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2023.2234660, this article focuses on the role of gender equality within the BRI and its promise to be an inclusive development project^[9]Lindberg, J., & Biddulph. (2021). China’s Belt and Road Initiative: The Need for Livelihood-Inclusive Stories. Geoforum. 138-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2021.02.015. Despite extensive research on the BRI’s potential to reshape the world order, scant attention has been given to its gender dimensions^[10]Ruwanpura, K., & Ferdoush, M. (2023). Gendering the BRI: A Viewpoint, Gender, Place & Culture, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2023.2234660, raising concerns as development projects may “make a positive difference for women in all levels of society^[11]Marshall, H. (2021). The Gender Gap in China’s Belt and Road. Center for Strategic and International Studies. https://www.csis.org/blogs/new-perspectives-asia/gender-gap-chinas-belt-and-road”. By providing a potential reconfiguration of the global capitalist system, the BRI may prioritise economic growth over social equality, justice and ecological sustainability, posing challenges to the advancement of gender equality^[12]Yiping, C., & Yin, Y. (2022). An Analytical Framework on the Gender Impact of China’s Global Engagement in the Global South. DAWN Feminist. 12. … Continue reading. While some observe a diminishing emphasis on the BRI in Chinese leaders’ speeches, analysing its impact on gender equality becomes crucial as China’s Global Development Initiative gains prominence^[13]Brînza, A. (2022). What Happened to the Belt and Road Initiative? The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2022/09/what-happened-to-the-belt-and-road-initiative/.

This prompts a central question: In what ways does China’s global project, framed as inclusive and centred on connectivity and development, and its potential to shift geopolitical dynamics, generate gender-specific repercussions on women and influence their roles and opportunities?

By centering on gender, this article carves out a space for the gendered production of knowledge. Employing a feminist gaze into the BRI, it illuminates the intricate relationship between shifting global power dynamics, women and gender. Emphasising the need for further research on the gendered imaginaries underpinning the BRI, the article seeks to ascertain whether the initiative holds potential to champion human rights-centred approach, thereby presenting a new paradigm for gender justice in development.

China’s Gender Narrative: From Rhetoric to Reality

Discourse surrounding gender has played a pivotal role in shaping China’s national narrative and progress throughout the 20th century. Rooted in the perceived link between women’s subordination and the country’s vulnerability during the “Century of Shame^[14]Zheng, W. (2005). “State Feminism”? Gender and Socialist State Formation in Maoist China, Feminist Studies, 31(3), 519-551 https://doi.org/10.2307/20459044” (mid-19th to mid-20th centuries), a feminist discourse emerged as a crucial component of China’s modernisation endeavours and efforts to fortify the nation. Departing from the traditional notion of women solely as child bearers, popular Chinese thought has evolved to depict women as endorsed by the state, assuming a revolutionary role^[15]Wu, Y., Tong, S. (2020) Gender Equality Through the Belt and Road Initiative: Addressing Women’s Rights in Development. China, Law and Development. https://cld.web.ox.ac.uk/files/wu_2020_rbpdf. At the United Nations’ Conference of Global Leaders in 2015, President Xi Jinping reaffirmed China’s commitment to gender equality and women’s development^[16]Sengupta, S. (2015). Xi Jinping Voww to “Reaffirm” China’s Commitment to Women’s Rights. The New York Times. … Continue reading. Five years later, he officially acknowledged that women play a significant role in “supporting half of the sky^[17]Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Statement by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China At the High-level Meeting on the Twenty-fifth Anniversary … Continue reading”, asserting that gender equality and women’s empowerment are at the forefront of China’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. 

Despite these strides, women are still often viewed as objects rather than subjects. This is glaringly evident in China’s male-dominated political landscape: as of 2022, President Xi Jinping revealed an all-male politburo for the first time since 1997, erasing one of the steps women had made towards real progress in Communist China and justifying why the UN has expressed concerns regarding gender discrimination in Chinese politics^[18]Master, F. (2023). UN Says Concerned About Lack of Women in China’s Top Government. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/china/un-says-concerned-about-lack-women-chinas-top-government-2023-05-31/. Recently, China’s president also announced that women must establish a “new trend of the family^[19]Xi Says China’s Women Must Start “New Trend of Family” (2023, October 30). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/china/xi-says-chinas-women-must-start-new-trend-family-2023-10-30/” to counteract the nation’s ageing population, demonstrating a patriarchal culture through which women’s development is equated to their ability to create a new marriage and childbearing culture. In fact, despite 60% of Chinese women participating in the labour force, positioning China among the countries with the highest female labour force participation rates globally^[20]The World Bank. Labour Force Participation Rate, Female (% of Female Population Ages 15+) (Modeled ILO Estimate) (2023). The World Bank. … Continue reading, Human Rights Watch draws attention to gender discrimination in the labour market, exacerbated by four decades of rapid economic growth in China^[21]Stauffer, B. (2018). “Only Men Need Apply”: Gender Discrimination in Job Advertisements in China. Human Rights Watch. … Continue reading. 

Not only does discrimination permeate through corporate recruitment procedures, with the public and private sector frequently stipulating a preference or requirement for male applicants^[22]Stauffer, B. (2018). “Only Men Need Apply”: Gender Discrimination in Job Advertisements in China. Human Rights Watch. … Continue reading, but the alarming prevalence of the sexual objectification of women in Chinese job advertising has also become striking. Notably, Alibaba’s recruitment account posted photos of young female employees, categorising them as “late night benefits^[23]Stauffer, B. (2018). “Only Men Need Apply”: Gender Discrimination in Job Advertisements in China. Human Rights Watch. … Continue reading”. Lastly, China’s gender parity ranking in 2017 fell for the ninth consecutive year, placing the country in 100th position amongst 144 surveyed countries. While China’s narrative reflects progress in acknowledging gender dynamics, the persistent disparities in political representation, labour market discrimination, and objectification of women underscore the substantial gap between rhetoric and reality in the country’s ongoing pursuit of gender equality.

Gender Dynamics in the Chinese Legal Sphere

The notion that gender equality is not merely a fundamental human right but pivotal for peace, security and prosperity appears to be gaining traction within the Chinese legal framework. Affirming its commitment to women’s empowerment, China has signed numerous United Nations multilateral human rights treaties including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and most importantly, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). As a signatory, China is obligated to submit period reports detailing progress in implementing these treaties to relevant bodies. Additionally, it supports the 2001 Millennium Development Goals and the 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), both emphasising the fundamental principle of gender equality. 

Furthermore, as one of the founding members of the International Labour Organization, China acknowledges the adverse effects of gender discrimination. This recognition is embedded in the organisation’s Constitution through conventions such as the Discrimination Convention, Maternity Protection Convention, and Equal Remuneration Convention, emphasising the need to combat multiple dimensions of gender-based discrimination.

At the domestic level, gender equality is enshrined as an overarching principle in the Chinese Constitution^[24]The State Council. (2019). Constitution of the People’s Republic of China. The People’s Republic of China. … Continue reading. The country has implemented gender-sensitive laws, including the Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests, the Anti-domestic Violence Law, the adoption of the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action, seeking to make women more visible in China’s developmental efforts. Nevertheless, the translation of these laws into practices has prompted criticism from several academics who question the efficacy of their operationalisation^[25] Wu, Y., Tong, S. (2020) Gender Equality Through the Belt and Road Initiative: Addressing Women’s Rights in Development. China, Law and Development. https://cld.web.ox.ac.uk/files/wu_2020_rbpdf.

Professors Lu Haina, Liang Xiaohiu and Wang Chenping delve into the disparities between international gender equality standards and China’s transnational aid and investment programmes. They note that while China ratified CEDAW and has officially committed to SDG5 on gender equality, it has failed to translate gender equality policies into its overseas development programmes^[26]Haina, L., Xiaohiu, L. & Chenping, W. (2018). Improving Gender Equality Through China’s Belt and Road Initiative. British Council. https://www.britishcouncil.cn/sites/default/files/en_final.pdf. This is attributed to inadequate knowledge about gender equality rates in host countries and China’s apparent lack of political will to fulfil its international obligations.The gap between China’s rhetoric and implementation raises serious questions about the genuine commitment to address gender disparities.

BRI: Unleashing Women’s Power in Common Development

In his speech, President Xi Jinping characterised the BRI as a project aiming to advance “inclusiveness^[27]Belt and Road Forum. (2023). Building an Open, Inclusive and Interconnected World for Common Development. http://www.beltandroadforum.org/english/n101/2023/1018/c124-1175.html”. Professors Mingying Zhu and Zhiren Hu content that the BRI has positioned women as a crucial force for “prosperity and vitality^[28]Zhu, M., & Hu, Z. (2023). “One Belt One Road” and Women Development. International Studies of Economics, 1-36.https://doi.org/10.1002/ise3.50 ” by actively engaging them in national economic development. As of November 2021, China had signed 206 cooperation agreements with 141 countries and 32 organisations, creating an advantageous economic landscape conducive to the flourishing of female employment opportunities. In fact, compared with 2013, the female population with secondary education in the countries along the BRI increased by 3.44% and their income rose by 14.5%^[29]Zhu, M., & Hu, Z. (2023). “One Belt One Road” and Women Development. International Studies of Economics, 1-36.https://doi.org/10.1002/ise3.50 . Although direct causation between the BRI’s initiation and these positive changes cannot be definitively establishes, it holds the potential to suggest that the BRI’s small and medium-sized projects have empowered women.

A noteworthy example is the BRI’s project China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). Seeking to build a path between Pakistan, China and Europe, the CPEC was lauded as a “game changer^[30]The State Council Information Office The People’s Republic of China. China-Pakistan Project Proves Real Game Changer For Local Women. The State Council Information Office The People’s Republic of … Continue reading” by women’s rights advocates due to its ability to create job opportunities for educated women and female labourers. With women constituting over 50% of Pakistan’s population, they represent a great contribution to the country’s economic development ^[31]Rashid, A. (2019). How China’s BRI is Transforming Pakistani Women’s Status. CCTGN. https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d414f304d7a4d34457a6333566d54/index.html .  The number of women working in Chinese organisations involved in CPEC projects is increasing, and their expanded opportunities in non-agriculture-related sectors have broadened their vocational horizons, providing them with a more dignified status as productive family supporters^[32]Rashid, A. (2019). How China’s BRI is Transforming Pakistani Women’s Status. CCTGN. https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d414f304d7a4d34457a6333566d54/index.htm. Companies like Engro Coal Mining (SECMC) emphasise empowering women by supporting their journey towards financial independence. CPEC offers one-year training for female truck drivers, easing their dependence on men, elevating their life quality, and fostering meaningful cultural exchanges that position women on a more equal footing^[33]Rashid, A. (2019). How China’s BRI is Transforming Pakistani Women’s Status. CCTGN. https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d414f304d7a4d34457a6333566d54/index.htm.

The BRI has emerged as a potentially transformative force in several other countries, offering diverse opportunities and positive impacts, namely for women^[34]Song, N. (2020). What China’s Belt and Road Initiative Means for Cambodia. University of South California US-China Institute. … Continue reading. In Cambodia, the BRI’s contribution extends beyond infrastructure development by creating employment for 20,000 locals, of which the majority are women. This shift towards inclusivity is pivotal in a country where gender equality in the workforce has historically faced challenges^[35]Asian Development Bank. (2013). Gender Equality in the Labour Market in Cambodia.  https://www.adb.org/publications/gender-equality-labor-market-cambodia. In Ethiopia, the BRI is identified as a catalyst for social progress, as exemplified by Grima, the country’s first female electric train driver ^[36]Xinhua. (2023). BRI Unleashes “She” Power in Cooperation, Common Development. Xinhua Net. https://english.news.cn/20231020/b911bd7b81234d40b6a54a9d639f6ef1/c.html. Her success story underscores the BRI’s role as a crucial support system for Ethiopian youth and women who face barriers to education and professional advancement^[37]Xinhua. (2023). BRI Unleashes “She” Power in Cooperation, Common Development. Xinhua Net. https://english.news.cn/20231020/b911bd7b81234d40b6a54a9d639f6ef1/c.html. Finally, the BRI has proven to be a boon for women entrepreneurs in Kyrgyzstan, providing them with a platform to thrive internationally^[38]Xinhua. (2023). BRI Unleashes “She” Power in Cooperation, Common Development. Xinhua Net. https://english.news.cn/20231020/b911bd7b81234d40b6a54a9d639f6ef1/c.html. These entrepreneurs attest to the initiative’s role in expanding their businesses across borders, contributing to the economic empowerment of women in the region^[39]Xinhua. (2023). BRI Unleashes “She” Power in Cooperation, Common Development. Xinhua Net. https://english.news.cn/20231020/b911bd7b81234d40b6a54a9d639f6ef1/c.html. Overall, these insights highlight the multifaceted positive impact of the BRI on women’s lives in different countries, from economic empowerment to breaking gender stereotypes in traditionally male-dominated fields. 

Beyond the BRI’s trade and economic dimensions, it is believed that its projects have made substantial contributions to local health and education^[40]Xinhua. (2023). BRI Unleashes “She” Power in Cooperation, Common Development. Xinhua Net. https://english.news.cn/20231020/b911bd7b81234d40b6a54a9d639f6ef1/c.html, aligning with the overarching goal of promoting cultural exchanges and mutual learning across diverse regions^[41]Ploberger, C. (2017). One Belt, One Road – China’s New Grand Strategy, Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14765284.2017.1346922.

These investments resulted in a 15.34% decrease in maternal mortality rates from 2013 to 2017 in countries along the BRI^[42]Zhu, M., & Hu, Z. (2023). “One Belt One Road” and Women Development. International Studies of Economics, 1-36. https://doi.org/10.1002/ise3.50 ; several doctors claim to have witnessed the multiple ways in which the BRI promoted women’s health in impoverished countries such as Sierra Leone, proposing the creation of online support systems through which local health practitioners may seamlessly consult with their Chinese counterparts^[43]Lei, L. (2023). BRI Elevates Women’s Healthcare in Africa. China Daily. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202310/14/WS6529ef55a31090682a5e883e.html. Furthermore, the BRI’s vision of creating a “bright future for education^[44]Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2016). Education Plan for the Belt and Road Initiative. Belt and Road Portal. https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/30277.html” has led to a more significant increase in secondary education for women compared to men, accompanied by a shift in labour dynamics from a family and agriculture-oriented to an industrial orientation^[45]Zhu, M., & Hu, Z. (2023). “One Belt One Road” and Women Development. International Studies of Economics, 1-36.https://doi.org/10.1002/ise3.50. These findings suggest the BRI not only addresses unfavourable conditions in countries where gender inequality is pervasive, but it works to narrow the gender gap in women’s development.

Neglecting the Gender Gap in BRI Receiving Countries

When announcing the BRI, the Chinese leader Xi Jinping pledged it would “promote common development and prosperity so as to bring benefits to our people^[46]Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the United Nations Office. (2023). Belt and Road: A Road of Prosperity for the New Era. … Continue reading”. However, researcher Hope Marshall argues that the primary beneficiaries of the BRI are “predominantly men^[47]Marshall, H. (2021). The Gender Gap in China’s Belt and Road. Center for Strategic and International Studies.https://www.csis.org/blogs/new-perspectives-asia/gender-gap-chinas-belt-and-road”. Several press releases indicate that Chinese companies operating in the Global South have acknowledged gender disparity issues. For instance, Huawei recently announced its initiative to teach digital technologies to 100,000 high school girls in Ghana^[48]HuaweI (n.d.). Huawei Moves to Phase 2 in Women in Tech Program to Train 100,000 Ghana Girls. Huawei.  … Continue reading. Despite such efforts, the intersection of BRI and gender has seldom been explored in official discourse, lacking specific initiatives targeting women’s empowerment^[49]National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China. (2015). Vision and Actions on Jointly Building Silk Road … Continue reading. 

Multiple factors may contribute to this gap. Not only does China itself rank 107th out of 156 in gender equity according to the World Economic Forum, maintaining a considerable gender imbalance^[50]World Economic Forum. (2021). Global Gender Gap Report 2021. World Economic Forum.  https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2021.pdf, but the country’s male-dominated political arena has resulted in the exclusion of women from high-level decisions regarding domestic and foreign policy^[51]Marshall, H. (2021). The Gender Gap in China’s Belt and Road. Center for Strategic and International Studies.https://www.csis.org/blogs/new-perspectives-asia/gender-gap-chinas-belt-and-road. Additionally, Beijing tends to uphold the status quo in its international arrangements. Given that several of the BRI’s recipient countries have struggled with, or neglected prioritising gender mainstreaming in the past, one may argue that China holds little incentive to promote gender equality in countries that could easily oppose it, especially as gender norms and women’s status are deeply embedded in culture, politics and religion, and might thus become a contentious issue to address. This underscores the need for a nuanced approach that considers the intricate web of cultural, political, and historical factors influencing gender dynamics in the BRI landscape.

Overlooked Opportunities for Female Involvement

While claiming a commitment to international human rights obligations, China’s BRI falls short in adopting a rights-based approach, particularly concerning the involvement of women. This became particularly evident recently, when China offered to extend CPEC into Afghanistan, formalising its inclusion in the BRI – an initiative accepted by the Taliban^[52]D’Souza, S. (2023, October 19). China’s Belt and Road Initiative and the Taliban’s Economic Dreams. The Diplomat. … Continue reading. Note that with the rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan, girls have been banned from education^[53]Fetrat, S. (2023, March 24). One Year On, the Taliban Still Attacking Girls’ Right to Education. Human Rights Watch. … Continue reading and women deprived of working in managerial positions and government agencies^[54]United States Institute of Peace (n.d.). https://www.usip.org/tracking-talibans-mistreatment-women, meaning the extension of CPEC into Afghanistan could strengthen the Taliban’s attempts to erase Afghan women from public life, ultimately undermining the potential for economic and developmental advancement. While such benevolence towards Afghanistan might be part of the plan to resist the West and shift the current world order, it does so at the expense of women’s rights.

Similarly, China’s investment of $4.45 billion in Bangladesh^[55]Noyon, A. (2023, October 01). How China’s Belt and Road Changing Bangladesh’s Infrastructures. The Business Standard. … Continue reading through the China-Bangladesh-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIM) raises significant concerns. Despite discriminatory laws, patriarchal attitudes, China’s investment lacks a gender-specific policy^[56]Haina, L., Xiaohiu, L. & Chenping, W. (2018). Improving Gender Equality Through China’s Belt and Road Initiative. British Council.https://www.britishcouncil.cn/sites/default/files/en_final.pdf. Even in Jordan, where there is no comprehensive legislation on gender equality and there is the prevalence of gender-based violence^[57]Haina, L., Xiaohiu, L. & Chenping, W. (2018). Improving Gender Equality Through China’s Belt and Road Initiative. British Council.https://www.britishcouncil.cn/sites/default/files/en_final.pdf, China’s investment in BRI speaks to the gender gap in its overseas investment and aid programmes^[58]Chau, J. (2022, February 26). China Welcomes Jordan’s Active Participation in Belt and Road Initiative. Jordan Times. … Continue reading. The absence of specific gender considerations within the BRI obstructs hosting countries from realising the crucial role gender equality plays in maximising the success of BRI initiatives. 

The negative economic and human rights implications of development initiatives are disproportionately borne by women^[59]Constantine, A. (2023). Debt, Displacement and Biodiversity Loss: Assessing the Gender, Environmental and Human Rights Implications of China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Global Forest Coalition. … Continue reading. In Kenya, where 80% of women reside in rural areas, the construction of BRI disrupts transportation, impacting women’s ability to collect essential resources like food, water, medicine and wood. Rural routes altered by the new railway disproportionately affect women, who traditionally bear the responsibility for water and fuel collection and engage in the majority of unpaid agricultural labour^[60]Constantine, A. (2023). Debt, Displacement and Biodiversity Loss: Assessing the Gender, Environmental and Human Rights Implications of China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Global Forest Coalition. … Continue reading. Usually working or living along the railway has meant that women have also been disproportionately displaced^[61]Constantine, A. (2023). Debt, Displacement and Biodiversity Loss: Assessing the Gender, Environmental and Human Rights Implications of China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Global Forest Coalition. … Continue reading. In Indonesia, women displaced by BRI faced the true costs, as China’s lack of a gendered development approach left them without promised reparations^[62]Galuh, L. (n.d.). The True Cost of China’s BRI Projects in Indonesia. Fair Planet. https://www.fairplanet.org/dossier/loss-and-damage/the-true-cost-of-chinas-bri-projects-in-indonesia/. The construction of new homes near tunnels heightened safety concerns, particularly during the rainy season which comes with the risk of landslides, reflecting the broader oversight of gender-specific considerations in China’s BRI endeavours^[63]Galuh, L. (n.d.). The True Cost of China’s BRI Projects in Indonesia. Fair Planet. https://www.fairplanet.org/dossier/loss-and-damage/the-true-cost-of-chinas-bri-projects-in-indonesia/.

The Imperative of Gender Inclusivity in BRI and Global Development Projects

In 2023, UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that “investing in women uplifts all people, communities, and countries^[64]United Nations. (2023, July 11). UN Calls for Gender Equality Push, Central to SDGs. United Nations News. https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/07/1138542” as well as to promote international peace and safety. For multiple countries along the BRI, China has played a significant role in developing countries’ infrastructures, creating employment opportunities, and enhancing social development. Henceforth, the way in which China directs and governs its foreign investment holds the potential to empower local women and thus in society and peace.

As the rate of China’s foreign investment expands, so does its influence over recipient countries. China’s suggestion for the BRI, according to its leader, is not only to develop local economies but to create and sustain a “community of common destiny^[65]Chen, A. (2022). China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Toward a Parallel World Order or a “Community of Common Destiny”?. Berkeley Journal of International Law. … Continue reading” based on cooperation, peace, mutual and win-win results. This means that the BRI itself aspires to social and ethical objectives which it must attempt to attain^[66]Haina, L., Xiaohiu, L. & Chenping, W. (2018). Improving Gender Equality Through China’s Belt and Road Initiative. British Council.https://www.britishcouncil.cn/sites/default/files/en_final.pdf. For this, clear and specific social goals must be ascertained within the understanding of China’s foreign investment and aid in promoting women’s empowerment and gender equality, according to UN SDG5, thereby improving the people-to-people connection China states it wants to through the BRI while contributing to female empowerment.

If BRI projects fail to prioritise gender considerations, they risk exacerbating existing gender disparities. The construction of large hydropower dams along the Mekong disrupted the livelihoods of both women and men in divergent manners^[67]Haina, L., Xiaohiu, L. & Chenping, W. (2018). Improving Gender Equality Through China’s Belt and Road Initiative. British Council.https://www.britishcouncil.cn/sites/default/files/en_final.pdf. Traditionally relying on the river for activities such as harvesting smaller fish, cultivating vegetables and conducting daily chores, women faced impediments as the dams resulted in rising water levels^[68]Yu, Y., & Shieh, S. (2022, December 08). Why Gender Should Matter in the Belt and Road Initiative. Business & Human Rights Resource Centre. … Continue reading. This hindered women’s ability to engage in essential tasks, and with men migrating to urban areas for work, women found themselves in an increasing caretaking role, often leading to their descent into subsistence poverty^[69]Yu, Y., & Shieh, S. (2022, December 08). Why Gender Should Matter in the Belt and Road Initiative. Business & Human Rights Resource Centre. … Continue reading.

In Nepal, the government’s Investment Board discovered that relocation and compensation had a gendered response^[70]Shieh, S., Chow, L. Huang, Z., & Yue, J. (2021). Understanding and Mitigating Social Risks to Sustainable Development in China’s BRI: Evidence from Nepal and Zambia. … Continue reading. Whereas men predominantly focused on the monetary compensation amount, women centred on the quality and location of the land in which they were to be resettled^[71]Shieh, S., Chow, L. Huang, Z., & Yue, J. (2021). Understanding and Mitigating Social Risks to Sustainable Development in China’s BRI: Evidence from Nepal and Zambia. … Continue reading. Their considerations extended to access to public hospitals and schools, as well as strategies to prevent potential misuse of compensation by the male head of the household^[72]Shieh, S., Chow, L. Huang, Z., & Yue, J. (2021). Understanding and Mitigating Social Risks to Sustainable Development in China’s BRI: Evidence from Nepal and Zambia. … Continue reading. Involving both men and women in the consultation process regarding land compensation and resettlement meant that compensation had to be deposited in a joint bank account and the provision of financial skills training for men and women was guaranteed^[73]Shieh, S., Chow, L. Huang, Z., & Yue, J. (2021). Understanding and Mitigating Social Risks to Sustainable Development in China’s BRI: Evidence from Nepal and Zambia. … Continue reading This underscores the multifaceted nature of gender dynamics in the context of infrastructure projects and the need for inclusive approaches to address varied concerns and priorities. 

Beyond Infrastructure: Embedding Gender Sensitivity in BRI’s Global Vision

According to the World Development Report, addressing gender gaps is crucial for international development^[74]Revenga, A., & Shetty, S. (2012). Empowering Women is Smart Economics. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2012/03/revenga.htm; striving towards gender equality may simultaneously improve development outcomes for the next generation and catalyse economic productivity, maximising China’s success in proposing a new model of global governance^[75]World Bank. (2012). World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/51c285f6-0200-590c-97d3-95b937be3271. Consequently, if China championed gender equality, it could advance a “win-win” relationship that would simultaneously advance international development and elevate the lives and livelihoods of women and girls. Such a commitment also holds the potential to bolster the international standing of both China and its corporate entities, showing the world that China’s projects can be truly “high-quality”, “sustainable” and “inclusive^[76]Belt and Road Forum. (2023). Building an Open, Inclusive and Interconnected World for Common Development. http://www.beltandroadforum.org/english/n101/2023/1018/c124-1175.html”, as promised by President Xi Jinping in April 2019 during the second Belt and Road Forum in Beijing.

The responsibility for gender mainstreaming goes beyond China alone; BRI receiving countries share the obligation to ensure the projects they partner with are gender-sensitive. Nonetheless, as many countries in the Global South lack a positive track record on gender parity, China could seize the opportunity to spearhead a paradigm shift towards gender equality and assume a leadership role within the Global South. This would recognise the shared responsibility while acknowledging China’s potential to be a transformative force in advancing gender equality within the BRI framework. 

There are several ways in which embedding gender mainstreaming in China’s international development initiatives could be pursued. Deputy Country Representative of the UN Women Tanzania Country Office, Julia Broussard, argues China must ensure that public and private Chinese companies participating in the BRI must adopt a gender lens within the framework of South-South Cooperation^[77]Broussard, J. (2019, March 28). China’s Potential to Promote Gender Equality through South-South Cooperation. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. … Continue reading. At governance level, gender sensitivity in BRI planning at the policymaking level is crucial. Developed by the United Nations Development Programme, the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights provides significant recommendations for decision-making bodies^[78]United Nations. (2011). Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. … Continue reading. It details the multidimensional nature of gender-based discrimination in corporate activities, presents a gender framework that public and private stakeholders may adopt to attain gender equality, and provides specific guidance for each of the principles it details. 

For this, mainstreaming gender sensitivity throughout the project life cycle, from project design to planning, construction and implementation is essential. Taking a gender approach to project analysis allows companies to identify divergent needs, resources and opportunities as well as specific constraints faced by women, girls, men and boys. This would allow for accurate targets to be developed, responsible actors appointed, a gender-responsible budget and performance indicators to measure progress and outcomes^[79]Morgan, G., Bajpai, A. Ceppi, P., Al-Hinai, A., Christensen, T., Kumar, S., Crosskey, S., & O’Regan, N. (2020). Infrastructure for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. UNOPS. … Continue reading. Both dimensions require staff to be trained on gender mainstreaming so that all staff understand why incorporating gender sensitivity in the project may benefit the company and BRI’s long-term sustainability, increase profitability, and improve the work environment^[80]Miceli, A., & Donaggio, A. (2018). Women in Business Leadership Boost ESG Performance: Existing Body of Evidence Makes Compelling Case. International Finance Corporation. … Continue reading.

Lastly, whereas China has increasingly expressed its commitment towards sustainable, inclusive and accessible BRI, it has shown insufficient preoccupation with the ways in which the project may present risks to women and other marginalised social groups. It is evident that infrastructure by itself may not enhance sustainable nor equitable development, and given the pronounced gender gap in the Global South, applying a gender lens to overseas investment would reposition China and ensure it complies with its international commitments to gender equality. To pursue President Xi Jingping’s vision of building “a global community of shared future^[81]Belt and Road Portal. (2019).The Belt and Road Initiative Progress, Contributions and Prospects. https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/p/86739.html”, China now needs to take the next step by acknowledging not only that gender matters, but that it is indeed crucial to its success.

To quote this article : Rosário Frada. (2023). Beyond the Belt and Road Initiative: Navigating Gender Dynamics in China’s Global Development Projects. Institut du Genre en Géopolitique. https://igg-geo.org/beyond-the-belt-and-road-initiative-navigating-gender-dynamics-in-chinas-global-development-projects/

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