The Gendered Dynamics Regarding the Sexual Exploitation of Child Soldiers

22.01.2024

Rosário Frada

Trigger Warning: Sexual Assault

Children under the age of 18 who serve in armed forces and groups around the world are known to be vulnerable to serious abuse^[1]Lorey, M. (2001). Child Soldiers: Care & Protection of Children in Emergencies. Save The Children. … Continue reading. In 2002, former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan officially established that “For far too long, the use of child soldiers has been seen as merely regrettable. We are here to ensure it is recognised as intolerable^[2]Keairns, Y. (2003). The Voices of Girl Child Soldiers Colombia. Quaker United Nations Office. … Continue reading”. Available information paints an alarming picture of the widespread recruitment and use of child soldiers in armed conflicts across the globe, with the Democratic Republic of Congo, Syria, Somalia and Yemen ranking highest as of 2021^[3]Wuilbercq, E. (2021, February 12). Factbox: Ten facts about child soldiers around the world. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN2AC0CB/. Almost 75% of conflicts today involve the recruitment of children^[4]Fore, H. (2021, February 12). Opinion: Female child soldiers often go unseen but must not be forgotten. Reuters. https://news.trust.org/item/20210211143359-cpm3z, of which 40% are girls^[5]Mulroy, M., Oehlerich, E. & Baddorf, Z. (2020, April 14). Begin with the children: Child soldier numbers doubled in the Middle East in 2019. Middle East Institute.  … Continue reading.

Frequently operating in contexts in which blind obedience is demanded and where moral and legal tissue has ruptured, grounds for sexual exploitation become fertile. While such impingement upon childrens’ sexual integrity affects girl soldiers disproportionately, boy soldiers are also targeted, disrupting traditional gendered assumptions^[6]Rossetti, L. (2019, September 23). Intra-party sexual crimes against child soldiers as war crimes in Ntaganda. ‘Tadić moment’ or unwarranted exercise of judicial activism? Questions of … Continue reading. This global problem is of particular importance for several reasons: the sexual exploitation of child soldiers is often overshadowed by the violence against children in armed conflict more generally, the abuse of boy soldiers is underreported and neglected, and, as UNICEF’s Executive Director, Henrietta Fore, claims, “Female child soldiers often go unseen but must not be forgotten^[7]Fore, H. (2021, February 12). Opinion: Female child soldiers often go unseen but must not be forgotten. Reuters. https://news.trust.org/item/20210211143359-cpm3z”. Focused research is further complicated by the difficulty of monitoring and documenting the use of child soldiers, combined with the barriers to uncover sexual abuse which is often concealed by social taboos and fears. Thus, exploring the gendered dynamics of sexual exploitation of child soldiers is required to rethink the parameters in which sexual violence in the context of armed conflict is understood^[8]Alfredson, L. (2001). Sexual Exploitation of Child Soldiers: An Exploration of Global Dimensions and Trends. Sexual Exploitation of Child Soldiers. … Continue reading.

The following question emerges: How does gender affect the experiences of sexual violence among child soldiers and how do these complicate widely-held gender norms? What are the implications for the prevention, release and reintegration of child soldiers? 

By challenging the long-held assumption that child soldiering is a male phenomenon and shifting attention to girls’ involvement in fighting forces, this research explores the different gender roles and involvements for both boy and girl child soldiers to better understand the unique needs and vulnerabilities that must be prioritised in any efforts to prevent, release and reintegrate child soldiers^[9]Rice, H. (2019, January 12). Invisible girls: the role of girls in armed conflict in contemporary Africa. The Historian Journal. … Continue reading. 

Legal Frameworks and Blind Spots: Safeguarding Child Soldiers from Sexual Violence 

The United Nations (UN) Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) was adopted by the General Assembly in resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989 and quickly became a pioneering document that acknowledged children’s entitlement to special status and protection. Nevertheless, it initially failed to extend additional safeguards for children during armed conflicts. Rather, it referred to the principles of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) without explicitly addressing the specific vulnerabilities of child soldiers, particularly in the context of sexual violence^[10]Diaz, S. (2019). An Elusive Mandate: Enforcing the Prohibition on the Use of Child Soldiers, Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 39(3). … Continue reading. The emergence of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (OPAC) in 2002 marked a significant shift, presenting a more robust prohibition against the use of child soldiers under international law^[11]Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict. (2000). Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in … Continue reading. 

Described as “the most specific prohibition of child soldiers under international law^[12]Diaz, S. (2019). An Elusive Mandate: Enforcing the Prohibition on the Use of Child Soldiers, Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 39(3). … Continue reading”, OPAC has been ratified by 172 countries and signifies a global consensus to ban the participation of children under the age of 18 in hostilities^[13]Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict. (2000). Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in … Continue reading. While it focuses on the prohibition of child recruitment and use in armed conflict, the protocol also emphasises the importance of preventing children from being exploited by non-state actors, including sexual exploitation. This creates a linkage between international law and the protection of child soldiers from sexual violence, underscoring the imperative for states to develop measures to prevent such exploitation and criminalise related practices^[14]Diaz, S. (2019). An Elusive Mandate: Enforcing the Prohibition on the Use of Child Soldiers, Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 39(3). … Continue reading. While the substantive protections under OPAC are limited to the few specific prohibitions of raising the age of recruitment and use in armed conflict, the development of positive state obligations towards children in conflict signified a change in the world’s view of the overall prohibition.

In tandem with OPAC, the Cape Town principles and best practices were endorsed in 1997 as a result of a symposium organised by the UN International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and the NGO Working Group on the CRC to develop strategies aimed at halting child recruitment,  demobilising child soldiers and supporting their reintegration into society^[15]International Committee of the Red Cross. (2007). The Paris Principles. International Committee of the Red Cross. https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/parisprinciples_en%5b1%5d.pdf. Significantly, they contribute to broadening the scope of protection for children involved in armed forces or groups by defining “child soldier” in the following manner: “any person under 18 years of age who is part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity, including but not limited to cooks, porters, messengers and anyone accompanying such groups^[16]Brett, R. (2004). Girl soldiers: denial of rights and responsibilities, Refugee Survey Quarterly, 23(2), 30-37. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45054822”. By not referring exclusively to a child who is carrying or has carried arms, this inclusive definition prohibits the broader involvement or association of children with armed forces or armed groups, crucial for addressing the gendered experiences of child soldiers, especially girls who may be recruited for sexual purposes or forced into marriage.  

Adopted in 1998, the Rome Statute defines the use of child soldiers as a war crime, giving teeth to the international prohibition of recruiting and using child soldiers^[17]Diaz, S. (2019). An Elusive Mandate: Enforcing the Prohibition on the Use of Child Soldiers, Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 39(3). … Continue reading. However, it falls short by limiting enforceability to state or non-state actors deploying children under 15, generating immunity to actors who conscript children who are 15 years of age or older, or who do not use children to actively participate in hostilities. As opposed to the Cape Town principles, which extend the definition of a “child soldier” to anyone who participates in any kind of armed force including to provide sexual services, the Rome Statute fails to explicitly recognise sexual violence against child soldiers as a prosecutable crime within the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC) , although such violence may potentially be prosecuted using the sexual violence crimes enumerated in the Statute^[18]Grey, R. (2014). Sexual Violence against Child Soldiers: The limits and potential of international criminal law, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 16(4), 601-621. … Continue reading.

Remarkably, both the Rome Statute and IHL have not prioritised sexual violence against child soldiers. IHL, traditionally viewed as primarily concerned with relations among opposing parties, faces challenges in addressing intra-group conflicts, including acts of sexual violence within the same armed force^[19]Rossetti, L. (2019, September 23). Intra-party sexual crimes against child soldiers as war crimes in Ntaganda. ‘Tadić moment’ or unwarranted exercise of judicial activism? Questions of … Continue reading. Consequently, in principle, “crimes committed by combatants of one party to the conflict against members of their own armed forces do not constitute war crimes^[20]Rossetti, L. (2019, September 23). Intra-party sexual crimes against child soldiers as war crimes in Ntaganda. ‘Tadić moment’ or unwarranted exercise of judicial activism? Questions of … Continue reading”. While this does not mean that IHL imposes no obligation at all in intra-party relations, for instance regarding the treatment of fellow soldiers who are wounded or sick^[21]Rossetti, L. (2019, September 23). Intra-party sexual crimes against child soldiers as war crimes in Ntaganda. ‘Tadić moment’ or unwarranted exercise of judicial activism? Questions of … Continue reading, it is significant because under the jurisdiction of ICL, acts of sexual violence must not only take place in the context of an armed conflict but they must constitute a violation of the applicable rules of IHL^[22]Grey, R. (2014). Sexual Violence against Child Soldiers: The limits and potential of international criminal law, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 16(4), 601-621. … Continue reading. This requirement complicates the possibility of prosecuting sexual violence against child soldiers by members of the same armed forces or group as a war crime, not least because IHL generally protects persons taking no direct part in hostilities from the dangers posed by the opposing party to the conflict^[23]Grey, R. (2014). Sexual Violence against Child Soldiers: The limits and potential of international criminal law, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 16(4), 601-621. … Continue reading. Consequently, the inadequacy of current legal frameworks to explicitly address the dynamics of sexual violence faced by child soldiers raises critical questions about the adequacy and effectiveness of international law in protecting the most vulnerable in times of conflict. 

Navigating the Gendered Labyrinth of Child Soldier Recruitment

While the prevailing image of child soldiers often depicts them as wielding weapons, the reality extends far beyond, with many recruited for ancillary roles such as cooks, human shields, spies, suicide members, mesengers, and tragically for sexual exploitation by both state and non-state armed groups^[24]Shad, S. (2023, June 05). The adverse Experiences of Child Soldiers. Poverty Child. https://povertychild.org/the-adverse-experiences-of-child-soldiers/. The insidious use of children in sexual exploitation is especially pervasive, with armed groups preying on the vulnerability of children who may lack a well-developed sense of danger and are more easily manipulated^[25]Child Soldiers. (n.d.). Their World. https://theirworld.org/resources/child-soldiers/. The targeting of children for sexual exploitation is exacerbated by their perceived fearlessness, as they may be coerced into accepting more perilous tasks without questioning them^[26]Understanding the Recruitment of Child Soldiers in Africa. (2016, August 16). ACCORD. https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/understanding-recruitment-child-soldiers-africa/. This highlights a critical linkage between the recruitment dynamics and the sexual vulnerability of child soldiers.  

Child soldiers are incorporated into armed forces through various means, and the repercussions of recruitment are distinctly gendered^[27]Fore, H. (2021, February 12). Opinion: Female child soldiers often go unseen but must not be forgotten. Reuters. https://news.trust.org/item/20210211143359-cpm3z. Research by UNICEF reveals that girls recruited through abduction face a higher likelihood of victimisation, with a significant percentage reporting instances of rape, sexual slavery, or forced marriage during their association with armed forces, as seen in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) between 2018 and 2020^[28]Fore, H. (2021, February 12). Opinion: Female child soldiers often go unseen but must not be forgotten. Reuters. https://news.trust.org/item/20210211143359-cpm3z. In countries including Colombia^[29]Guerrilla group Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) recruited child soldiers to help fight against the state in Colombia’s civil war, and face charges. Most were recruited in the late … Continue reading and the DRC^[30]In 2007, the UN reported that the situation in DRC with the Kivu conflict, which consisted in a series of protracted armed conflicts in the east, had only worsened, with girl soldiers being recruited … Continue reading, girls are specifically targeted for forced recruitment, exploiting societal stereotypes that render them less suspected of engaging in armed operations or criminal acts^[31]Gozzo, F. (2022, February 05). The Struggle of Child Soldiers in Colombia. Borgen Project. https://borgenproject.org/child-soldiers-in-colombia/. In other regions, girls face the risk of being recruited as wives for ritualistic purposes, such as in Iraq, Central African Republic, South Sudan and parts of the DRC, where virgin girls are enlisted based on fetish beliefs, used as parts of the armed groups’ purification rituals thought to provide protection to combatants^[32]How can we best help girl child soldiers? (n.d.). World Vision. https://www.wvi.org/opinion/view/how-can-we-best-help-girl-child-soldiers. This underscores the intersection between gender-based violence (GBV) and the specific vulnerabilities faced by girl child soldiers, bringing the focus to the crucial issue of sexual violence. Moreover, it confronts the agency of girls as they navigate a terrain fraught with gendered violence. 

Challenging the widely-held notion that children are forcibly coerced into joining armed forces, the conditions driving children into this harrowing reality are also profoundly gendered. Countries grappling with high rates of child recruitment, such as Somalia, often exhibit pronounced gender inequality issues^[33]How can we best help girl child soldiers? (n.d.). World Vision. https://www.wvi.org/opinion/view/how-can-we-best-help-girl-child-soldiers. This suggests that, as girls are at heightened risk of violence and discrimination, their association with armed forces may be shaped by gender-related factors, and the lines between coercion and choice to get involved may become blurred. Due to their heightened risk of GBV, girls may choose to join armed groups to escape sexual abuse endured as civilians during conflict, to secure income, or to align themselves with family members or partners engaged in combat^[34]Fore, H. (2021, February 12). Opinion: Female child soldiers often go unseen but must not be forgotten. Reuters. https://news.trust.org/item/20210211143359-cpm3z. Economic and social pressures, as well as a desire to fight for a cause they or their families support, often drive children to join armed forces, illustrating the multifaceted gendered nature of these motivations^[35]Child Soldiers. (n.d.). Their World. https://theirworld.org/resources/child-soldiers/. In some cases, girls join armed groups because they are inspired by some armed groups who promote imagery of strong female warriors, encouraging girls to take up arms and join their ranks^[36]Child Soldiers. (n.d.). Their World. https://theirworld.org/resources/child-soldiers/. 

For boy soldiers, selling their ability to fight is sometimes their only choice due to the highly pervasive influence of militarised masculinity as a dominant narrative. This further highlights the need to understand the nuanced gendered dynamics that shape the decisions of child soldiers as well as the necessity to build a new norm that goes beyond traditional gender expectations in conflict zones. 

Unravelling the Gendered Dynamics of Sexual Violence Against Child Soldiers

The harrowing experiences of girl soldiers in armed conflicts defy simplistic categorisations, unveiling a multidimensional tapestry of intersecting challenges. Instances of rape, sexual enslavement, and the imposition of “bush wives^[37]Grey, R. (2014). Sexual Violence against Child Soldiers: The limits and potential of international criminal law, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 16(4), 601-621. … Continue reading” roles, whereby girls are abducted and forced into marriage with fellow soldiers, add layers to their participation in hostilities, intertwining issues of power, coercion, and gender dynamics. The commodification of their bodies and sexual labour emerges starkly in conflict zones such as Colombia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda, where male commanders are rewarded with abducted girls forced into roles of “wives” and sexual and domestic slaves^[38]Sommers, M. (1997). The Children’s War: Towards Peace in Sierra Leone. A Field Report Assessing the Protection And Assistance Needs of Sierra Leonean Children and Adolescents. Women’s Commission … Continue reading. Importantly, clear distinctions between roles – fighters vs. ““wives”, spies vs. prostitutes, or porters vs. mine sweeps – prove inaccurate, demanding a more nuanced understanding within the intricate web of the fighting force or group and the broader sociopolitical context of the conflict. In addition to the commodification of their bodies, it is crucial to recognise how these actions are often rooted in deeply entrenched gender norms and stereotypes. The perpetuation of traditional roles and expectations in conflict zones exacerbates the vulnerability of girl soldiers, making them susceptible not only to physical violence but to the perpetuation of harmful gender norms. 

The gendered nuances of girls’ vulnerability, owing to their size and societal status, expose them to a spectrum of physical and psychological abuses, including sexual assault by both boys and men. This extends beyond individual acts of violence to systemic issues embedded in patriarchal structures. A 15-year-old Mandingo girl in Sierra Leone who was abducted by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and later escaped, said “I was a virgin before. They ruined me^[39]Mazurana, D., Mckay, S., Carlson, K. & Kasper, J. (2002). Girls in Fighting Forces and Groups: Their Recruitment, Participation, Demobilisation, and Reintegration, Peace and Conflict: Journal of … Continue reading”. Moreover, the intersectionality of gender and motherhood further complicates the experiences of girl soldiers. Instances where girls identified as “good breeders^[40]Mazurana, D., Mckay, S., Carlson, K. & Kasper, J. (2002). Girls in Fighting Forces and Groups: Their Recruitment, Participation, Demobilisation, and Reintegration, Peace and Conflict: Journal of … Continue reading” are sequestered to special camps to produce future fighters – as occurred in the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) Camps in southern Sudan -, highlight the entwined complexities of gender, reproduction and conflict.  In Cambodia and El Salvador, girls in fighting forces were given the choice to abort or give the child to peasants to raise until fighting age when forces then reclaimed them^[41]Mazurana, D., Mckay, S., Carlson, K. & Kasper, J. (2002). Girls in Fighting Forces and Groups: Their Recruitment, Participation, Demobilisation, and Reintegration, Peace and Conflict: Journal of … Continue reading. In Sierra Leone, a dangerous birthing practice of the RUF was to jump on the abdomens of pregnant girls who were in labour to force birth or to tie their legs together to delay birth if the group was on the move^[42]Mazurana, D., Mckay, S., Carlson, K. & Kasper, J. (2002). Girls in Fighting Forces and Groups: Their Recruitment, Participation, Demobilisation, and Reintegration, Peace and Conflict: Journal of … Continue reading. The violation of girl soldiers’ reproductive rights and the forced use of their bodies for strategic purposes underscore how GBV extends beyond immediate physical harm to shape the reproductive autonomy of female child soldiers. This reflects a broader pattern of exploiting gender roles and expectations as a tool of war, emphasising the need for a nuanced analysis that dissects the various dimensions of GBV within the context of conflict. 

The fluidity of gender roles in armed conflict challenges preconceived gender notions, particularly evident in Liberia and Uganda. Girls were recruited by the National Patriotic Front of Liberia, Lord’s Resistance Army and the Ugandan military since 1986 accordingly to fight on the front lines while boys were coerced into providing sexual services^[43]Mazurana, D & Mckay, S. (2001). Child Soldiers; What about the girls? Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 57/5), 30-35. https://doi.org/10.2968/057005010. This challenges traditional gender norms that often associate girls with non-combat roles and highlights the complexity of gender dynamics during conflict. The entanglement of gender dynamics becomes even more intricate as groups such as Boko Haram instruct younger boys to commit rape, reflecting not only a distortion but a weaponisation of traditional gender roles for strategic purposes^[44]Obaji, P. (2016, December 27). Boko Haram Teaching Child Soldiers to Rape. Daily Beast.  https://www.thedailybeast.com/boko-haram-teaching-child-soldiers-to-rape. This disturbing tactic showcases the multifaceted ways in which gender is exploited in conflict settings, challenging the preconceived notions about the roles and behaviour assigned to different genders. 

Moreover, the blurred lines between victims and perpetrators in cases where boys are forced to commit sexual violence to prove loyalty to the RUF in Sierra Leone’s civil war between 1991 and 2001 showcase the intricate power dynamics that shape the gendered experiences of child soldiers^[45]Alfredson, L. (2001). Sexual Exploitation of Child Soldiers: An Exploration of Global Dimensions and Trends. Sexual Exploitation of Child Soldiers. … Continue reading. The acknowledgement of these complexities is essential for crafting effective interventions that address the root causes of GBV in conflict zones and promote gender equality as a key component of post-conflict recovery. 

Complicating the Gendered Roles of Victim and Perpetrator

The complex interplay of power, gender and violence demands a holistic understanding that goes beyond binary categorisations, recognising the diverse and intersectional ways in which sexual violence manifests in the lives of child soldiers. Amid Yemen’s protracted civil war, which commenced in 2014, Yemen’s boy soldiers encounter significant hurdles as they grapple with the aftermath of sexual and physical abuse endured while under the control of the Houthi militia^[46]Mckay, H. (2018, July 24). Yemen’s child soldiers face long road after sexual, physical abuse. Fox News. … Continue reading. This underscores the imperative for a nuanced approach that recognised the gender-specific dimensions of their trauma. The often-overlooked aspect of sexual violence against boy soldiers challenges stereotypical notions of masculinity and victimhood, highlighting how traditional gender norms can exacerbate the stigma and silence surrounding the experiences of male victims. Addressing the gendered dynamics of sexual violence against boys requires breaking down societal expectations and acknowledging that vulnerability is not exclusive to one gender. This recognition is crucial for fostering a comprehensive response that respects the unique experiences of male victims within the broader context of conflict. 

The notion of boy soldiers as both victims and perpetrators emerges as a complex consequence of war, deeply rooted in militarised hegemonic masculinity^[47]Khan, R. (2020, January 10). Child soldiers complicate gender roles of victim and perpetrator. LSE Blog. … Continue reading. The underreporting of male victimisation and the lack of systematic data on sexual violence against boy soldiers highlight a significant gap in understanding^[48]Khan, R. (2020, January 10). Child soldiers complicate gender roles of victim and perpetrator. LSE Blog. … Continue reading. Indeed, male victims of sexual violence have been defined as the “last human rights taboo^[49]Khan, R. (2020, January 10). Child soldiers complicate gender roles of victim and perpetrator. LSE Blog. … Continue reading”. The universal binary oppositions of victim/perpetrator, passive/active, male/female and childhood/adulthood are limiting and must be renegotiated to facilitate effective cooperation between international organisations and communities. Child soldiers exist within a nuanced realm that defines linear trajectories from victim to perpetrator, demanding a more comprehensive understanding of their experiences and challenges. 

The misconception that women and girls are inherently peaceful obscures the reality that girls can also be perpetrators of sexual abuse against child soldiers. The focus on sexual violence against women and girls by legal instruments and international courts contributes to the oversight of girl soldiers committing acts of sexual violence. For instance, Ugandan boy soldiers in the Lord’s Resistance Army have been sexually abused not only by male commanders but by female commanders^[50]Nortje, W. (2023, March 30). The Sexual Abuse of African Boy Soldiers by Male and Female Offenders: The Need for an International Criminal Law Response. International Criminal Law Review, 23(3), … Continue reading. However, the focus  on sexual violence against women and girls by legal instruments and international courts not only contributes to the oversight of girl soldiers committing acts of sexual violence but reveals a broader imbalance in the discourse. For example, the Special Court for Sierra Leone and the ICC opted to focus on sexual violence against women and girls only^[51]Nortje, W. (2023, March 30). The Sexual Abuse of African Boy Soldiers by Male and Female Offenders: The Need for an International Criminal Law Response. International Criminal Law Review, 23(3), … Continue reading. This skewed discourse hinders effective disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration programming and perpetuates the assumption that sexual violence is almost exclusively perpetrated against women and girls. Challenging this assumption is crucial for a more inclusive understanding of the gender dynamics surrounding sexual violence in conflict zones. Additionally, it is imperative to consider the impact of societal expectations around femininity on the actions of girl soldiers, as traditional norms may influence their roles within armed groups and the types of violence they perpetrate. 

Clearly, contesting the dichotomy of “female” and “male” is essential to grasp how war complicates gender roles: boys may engage in activities traditionally associated with femininity and women can be capable active agents in acts of violence^[52]Santos, R., Roque, S., Moura, T., Zipfel, G., Garraio, J, Aldeia, J., Machado, H., Costa, S. Fortuna, C., Miles, M. & Mendes, L. (n.d.). RCCS Annual Review. … Continue reading. Feminist literature emphasises the distinction between “sex” and “gender”, indicating the inappropriateness of interchangeable use^[53]Khan, R. (2020, January 10). Child soldiers complicate gender roles of victim and perpetrator. LSE Blog. … Continue reading. The oversimplified idea that men are perpetrators and women are victims in acts of violence is debunked by the complex realities of war. Understanding the nuanced identities and roles that child soldiers assume within the complex dynamics of war is key for prevention and reintegration programs. 

The Gendered Challenges of Release and Reintegration of Child Soldiers 

The risk of recidivism, or re-associating with an armed force or group, presents unique challenges for girls in conflict zones. In contexts where gender norms are deeply entrenched and opportunities for girls are limited by religious or cultural interpretations, an experience with an armed group can paradoxically offer a girl a leadership role that may be otherwise inaccessible, although it is important to note that this dynamic does not always occur^[54]How can we best help girl child soldiers? (n.d.). World Vision. https://www.wvi.org/opinion/view/how-can-we-best-help-girl-child-soldiers. For boys, such roles might align with societal expectations and norms^[55]How can we best help girl child soldiers? (n.d.). World Vision. https://www.wvi.org/opinion/view/how-can-we-best-help-girl-child-soldiers. As global efforts persist in promoting gender equality, it is imperative to acknowledge that, for some girls, participation in armed conflict may provide a pathway to empowerment, challenging conventional gender norms. Permanently ending their association with an armed group may lead to a perceived “step back^[56]How can we best help girl child soldiers? (n.d.). World Vision. https://www.wvi.org/opinion/view/how-can-we-best-help-girl-child-soldiers” in agency, freedom and feelings of empowerment for girls, complicating their reintegration process. 

Moreover, girls seeking to reintegrate face a “double trauma^[57]Gozzo, F. (2022, February 05). The Struggle of Child Soldiers in Colombia. Borgen Project. https://borgenproject.org/child-soldiers-in-colombia/” that combines the horrors of participating in conflict with the lasting impact of GBV. The challenges differ for boys, as their involvement in hostilities might be seen as a norm or a natural role, especially when the armed group is perceived to have offered protection to their family or community^[58]Gozzo, F. (2022, February 05). The Struggle of Child Soldiers in Colombia. Borgen Project. https://borgenproject.org/child-soldiers-in-colombia/. For girls, particularly those engaged in active combat, their association with armed groups may significantly challenge social norms in a way that can be deemed unacceptable even where a girl may have similarly participated in the winning side^[59]Gozzo, F. (2022, February 05). The Struggle of Child Soldiers in Colombia. Borgen Project. https://borgenproject.org/child-soldiers-in-colombia/. This is further complicated by layers of significant stigma faced by GBV survivors. Girls who conceive children as a result of rape not only endure devastating ostracisation from their families^[60]Fore, H. (2021, February 12). Opinion: Female child soldiers often go unseen but must not be forgotten. Reuters. https://news.trust.org/item/20210211143359-cpm3z but face disproportionate shame upon return due to assumptions about the loss of virginity, hindering their abilities to reintegrate, making girls more vulnerable to a perpetuated cycle of sexual violence^[61]ALLIANCE., UNICEF., USAID., Sida. & Plan International. (n.d.). Girls Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups. ALLIANCE. … Continue reading. Alarmingly, the formal identification of girls as child soldiers and individuals associated with armed forces remains relatively infrequent. This discrepancy has profound implications for their release through formal Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration (DDR) processes. 

Incorporating the Voices of Child Soldiers into Policy Discourse

The current policy and scholarly landscape concerning child soldiers often overlooks a critical component – the voices of the child soldiers themselves. Integrating their perspectives is indispensable for enhancing gender-sensitive programming and accountability mechanisms. As ICC Prosecutor, Fatou Bensouda, officially stated in 2021, “Children’s voices and their stories of unspeakable abuses during war and conflict must not go unheard^[62]International Criminal Court. (2021, February 12). Statement of ICC Prosecutor, Fatou Bensouda, on the International Day against the Use of Child Soldiers. International Criminal Court. … Continue reading”.

Any program or project dedicated to improving the lives of former child soldiers should prioritise their involvement during the research and planning phase, as attempted by UNICEF, the International Red Cross Committee and Save the Children, which attempted to work with involved communities. However, allocating more funds and reaching more people is important to shift away from dominant discourses, one-size-fits-all approaches, and gender binaries and attain an enhanced comprehension of the diversity of lived experiences. This approach not only aids in responding more effectively to conflict-related sexual violence but in preventing such grave violations of human rights in the future. Crucially, acknowledging that girls too are many times associated with armed conflict is important to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the nuances within their experiences.

Incorporating child soldiers’ voices into policy discussions brings depth and authenticity, shedding light on the intricacies of their challenges and needs. By actively engaging with their narratives, policymakers can tailor interventions that are not only more effective but reflect the unique perspectives of those directly affected by armed conflicts. This urgently-required paradigm shift from a top-down approach to one that embraces the experiences of child soldiers empowers them to actively contribute to shaping policies that safeguard their rights and wellbeing. 

Investing in Prevention Programs to Counter Child Recruitment in Armed Conflicts

Preventing the recruitment of child soldiers remains under-invested, with fewer evidence-backed initiatives compared to those focusing on reintegration programs^[63]ALLIANCE., UNICEF., USAID., Sida. & Plan International. (n.d.). Girls Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups. ALLIANCE. … Continue reading. A crucial aspect is adopting a gender-specific approach, conducting comprehensive context analyses that emphasise risk factors and dynamics of conflict with a focus on gender and age. Children must also have equal access to services and opportunities, with girls being particularly protected from GBV. Addressing family violence and challenging harmful social norms through gender-transformative programs creates a supportive environment discouraging child recruitment^[64]ALLIANCE., UNICEF., USAID., Sida. & Plan International. (n.d.). Girls Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups. ALLIANCE. … Continue reading. 

Internationally, instruments such as OPAC, the Paris Principles, and Commitments on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups, the Safe Schools Declaration, and the Vancouver Principles hold states accountable for preventing child recruitment^[65]Prevention of Recruitment of Child Soldiers in Conflict Situations. (2022, October 05). Amani Africa. https://amaniafrica-et.org/prevention-of-recruitment-of-child-soldiers-in-conflict-situations/. However, their limited scope leaves non-state actors excluded, despite these regularly being major offenders. Action plans between the UN and armed groups, such as “The Platform^[66]Prevention of Recruitment of Child Soldiers in Conflict Situations. (2022, October 05). Amani Africa. https://amaniafrica-et.org/prevention-of-recruitment-of-child-soldiers-in-conflict-situations/” in Mali, play a crucial role in preventing child recruitment. The signing of action plans and commitments with armed non-State actors therefore plays a very critical role in establishing common standards for the protection of children from recruitment and use in armed conflicts by all parties concerned. 

Existing international requirements do not explicitly prohibit using 16 and 17 year old volunteers in government armed forces, contributing to ongoing violations in treating children during armed conflicts^[67]Lorey, M. (2001). Child Soldiers: Care & Protection of Children in Emergencies. Save The Children. … Continue reading. Basic safeguards against children’s exploitation within militaries need full implementation. Comprehensive training on child rights and protection is crucial for armed forces. This not only aids in identifying ways to uphold children’s rights but fosters cooperative relationships with humanitarian agencies, contributing to reconciliation post-conflict^[68]Save The Children Sweden. (2009). Behind the Uniform: Training the Military in Child Rights and Child Protection in Africa. RefWorld. https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4cb55feb2.pdf. Strengthening preventive measures within armed forces creates a protective environment dissuading child recruitment and ensuring the well-being of children in conflict zones. 

Building a Holistic Framework: Towards the Effective Reintegration of Child Soldiers

Equally crucial to preventive measures is a robust framework for rehabilitating and reintegrating children associated with armed groups. This is essentially not only to minimise re-recruitment but to prevent the  emergence of a disillusioned generation susceptible to radicalisation^[69]Prevention of Recruitment of Child Soldiers in Conflict Situations. (2022, October 05). Amani Africa. https://amaniafrica-et.org/prevention-of-recruitment-of-child-soldiers-in-conflict-situations/. The initial step involves identifying and releasing recruited child soldiers, particularly girls, who are often underrepresented in formal identification and are thus at greater risk of becoming trapped in perpetuated cycles of violence. The fact that girls represent 4 in every 10 child soldiers should drive efforts to include their release in all negotiations with armed forces and groups^[70]Mulroy, M., Oehlerich, E. & Baddorf, Z. (2020, April 14). Begin with the children: Child soldier numbers doubled in the Middle East in 2019. Middle East Institute. … Continue reading. Recommendations should emphasise the unconditional release of all children, irrespective of peace agreements or settlements. 

Efforts to end children’s recruitment, supporting their recovery, and prevent reintegration challenges require a more significant investment of resources. Currently, only 0.4% of global humanitarian assistance targets child protection in crisis settings, making it the second least funded sector^[71]Protection Cluster, Save The Children, the Alliance. (2020, October 27). Still Unprotected: Humanitarian Funding for Child Protection. ReliefWeb. … Continue reading. From the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs’ Financial Tracking Service, the least funded sector is GBV prevention and response, representing less than 1% of total humanitarian funding^[72]UNICEF. (n.d.). Gender-based violence in emergencies. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/protection/gender-based-violence-in-emergencies. As GBV needs are growing faster than funding response, recognising the urgent necessity for increased investment is vital to create effective and sustainable reintegration programs^[73]Protection Cluster, Save The Children, the Alliance. (2020, October 27). Still Unprotected: Humanitarian Funding for Child Protection. ReliefWeb. … Continue reading. 

Acknowledging children’s agency in their association with armed groups and their experiences too is vital. Girl soldiers, for instance, should not be perceived solely as passive victims but as empowered individuals contributing to their own reintegration. Formerly associated girls and women can play a pivotal role in sensitising and preventing recruitment. Community allies are also instrumental in challenging social norms and must be actively involved in prevention initiatives. Furthermore, empowering children to make informed decisions and enhancing their resilience is paramount, with special emphasis on building strategies to protect girls from returning to armed groups^[74]ALLIANCE., UNICEF., USAID., Sida. & Plan International. (n.d.). Girls Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups. ALLIANCE. … Continue reading. 

Reevaluating Justice for Child Soldiers

When deliberating over how to deal with child soldiers, the dichotomy between viewing them strictly as victims or perpetrators oversimplifies a complex reality. Justice for these individuals appears caught between the polarities of innocence and culpability, presenting a challenge to one’s moral evaluation of the subject. The prevailing victimhood discourse seeks community support for reintegration efforts, while criminal narratives serve political motives, justifying action against armed groups. This binary usage is strategically selective and raises ethical questions.

Examining the ICC trial of former child soldiers and LRA leader Ongwen underscores the diversity in how children enter and navigate conflict. Ongwen’s trajectory from abduction at the age of 14 to leadership, where he committed the same crime of abducting and recruiting child soldiers, illuminates the porous lines between victims and victimizers, complicating a strict dichotomy^[75]Mas, J. & Zilionyte, K. (n.d.). Child Soldiers and the Case of Dominic Ongwen. Centre for African Justice, Peace and Human Rights. … Continue reading. A victim-centred approach is crucial, acknowledging the impact of social context on perpetrators. Overlooking this context risks depriving the perpetrator’s profile of nuanced victimisation. Balancing the “ideal victim” standard is essential to ensure justice primarily services the victims, considering the complexities of their backgrounds. 

Breaking the trajectory from victim to perpetrator is a pressing imperative. Proactive measures including prevention by addressing the root cause that make children susceptible to recruitment and exploitation through strategies that tackle systemic issues is important. Moreover, justice mechanisms must extend beyond punitive measures and incorporate rehabilitative efforts. Recognising the profound impact of social context on perpetrators necessitates tailored interventions that address the underlying trauma and psychological effects of their experiences. Community involvement in the rehabilitation process is also crucial for breaking the stigma surrounding former child soldiers to facilitate acceptance back into society. 

Lastly, militaries continue to sexually exploit child recruits often with impunity, and the needs of demobilised children who have been sexually exploited are only beginning to be recognised and addressed pragmatically while the context of their exploitation remains much the same^[76]Alfredson, L. (2001). Sexual Exploitation of Child Soldiers: An Exploration of Global Dimensions and Trends. Sexual Exploitation of Child Soldiers. … Continue reading. The negligence of such violence raises critical questions about justice within armed forces and calls for a comprehensive reassessment of justice mechanisms. As former child soldiers reenter society, the justice system must confront not only their roles as victims but as survivors of systemic abuse within military structures. Acknowledging the prevalence of sexual exploitation within armed forces becomes integral to formulating a just and effective response that ensures accountability for the perpetrators while fostering the healing and reintegration of those who fell prey to sexual violence. 

In the realm of addressing the intricate challenges surrounding child soldiers, it is imperative to consider frameworks that promote comprehensive approaches to justice and reintegration. Having played a significant role in recognising and addressing the unique challenges faced by young people including former child soldiers, in conflict and post-conflict settings, the UN Youth, Peace and Security Agenda (YPS), established under Security Council Resolution 2250 in 2015, emerges as a pivotal instrument in recognising youth as part of the solution rather than the problem. By articulating the perspectives of children and what is required to uphold their protection, it helps emphasise the importance of addressing the root causes of recruitment and exploitation, necessary to promote sustainable solutions that go beyond a narrow dichotomy. Only by understanding the diverse experiences of children living in conflict affected regions may we inform conflict early warning and prevent the use of children in contemporary armed violence.

To quote this article : Rosário Frada. (2024). The Gendered Dynamics Regarding the Exploitation of Child Soldiers. Gender in Geopolitics Institute. https://igg-geo.org/?p=17799&lang=en

The statements in this article are the sole responsibility of the author.