Pyramids of Power: When Government-issued Feminism Represses Grassroots Women’s Movement in Egypt

26/04/2024

Written by: Cecilia Vidotto Labastie 

Since his 2013 election, President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi has made the repression of civil society key to maintaining social peace in Egypt. The extremely high inflation plaguing the country since 2017^[1]Statista. (2023). Egypt: Inflation rate from 1987 to 2028  https://www.statista.com/statistics/377354/inflation-rate-in-egypt/ and the dramatic events unfolding in neighboring Palestine since October 7, 2023, could have formed a dangerous mix for the government during the presidential election in December 2023. However, President al-Sisi ultimately managed to preserve the status quo. Egypt has now embarked on its third presidential term under President Sisi, marking the fourth since the uprising on January 25, 2011.

Feminist organizations are not exempt from the repression and activism for women’s rights has become increasingly perilous. Despite the nation’s rich history of feminist activism, progress remains elusive, characterized by fits and starts along a non-linear trajectory. The narrative of women’s rights in Egypt is multifaceted and ever evolving, shaped by a complex interplay of cultural norms, legal frameworks, and societal attitudes. These dynamics manifest in the everyday lives of Egyptian women, reflecting the broader struggles and triumphs of the movement.

Today, the Egyptian government retains control over women’s policies: it dictates its own version of feminism while muzzling any organizations advocating independent feminist programs. Moreover, the government leverages women’s voting rights to bolster its image abroad, as seen in media coverage showcasing buses filled with women heading to polling stations in December 2023.

Following the re-election of al-Sisi, women’s rights activists in Egypt face a formidable challenge: asserting an agenda independent from the government’s narrative while navigating a delicate balance between advocacy and the risk of reprisals. As activists strive to carve out space for meaningful change, the question persists: What lies ahead for women’s rights amidst the shifting sands of Egyptian politics, and what implications does this struggle hold for the broader landscape of human rights and democracy?

Egypt’s women rights activism: a long history and a complex present

Egypt holds a long-standing tradition of women’s rights activism. Tracing back to the reign of Mohammed Ali (1805-1848), debates over whether female education was essential to national development flourished^[2]Hoodfar H. (1992). A background to the feminist movement in Egypt. Al Raida. Spring;10(57):11-3.. Women later engaged in anticolonial movements and nationalist party activities while advocating improvements in women’s status, and by 1914, Egypt had 14 women-focused magazines. However, the Egyptian independence movement relegated women’s rights to a secondary position amidst the quest for independence and in 1923 the Egyptian Feminist Union was founded to gain comprehensive rights for women^[3]Badran, M. (2007). Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender (Vol 2). Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 451.. This party aimed to secure suffrage, advancements in education for women and children, the cessation of government-sanctioned prostitution, reforms in personal status laws, and improved healthcare for women and children. One year later, Egypt became the first Islamic country to deveil women without state intervention – notably thanks to the prominent feminist Huda Sha’arawi^[4]Sharawi Lanfranchi, S. (2011). Casting off the Veil: The Life of Huda Shaarawi, Egypt’s First Feminist. Tauris Academic Studies.. In the 1940s, a younger and more radical wave of feminists emerged, advocating for complete gender equality across education, employment, and politics, including paid leave for working women. This era witnessed the creation of two key women’s groups: the Women’s Political Party in 1942 and the Daughter of the Nile in 1948^[5]The Women’s Political Party was founded by Fatma Neamat Rashed in 1942 while Bint Al-Nil or Daughter of the Nile was a union created by Doria Shafik in 1948. The union was named after the … Continue reading. Women were granted the right to vote in 1956 with the Egyptian independence and the country’s first female Minister, Hekmat Abu-Zaid, was appointed in 1962.

Despite the advancements made on women’s rights, progress remains a non-linear path. The government of the conservative party Muslim Brotherhood from 2012 to 2013, known for its restrictive policies and limitations on women’s rights, stands as a stark reminder: setbacks can easily follow strides forward. Egypt, a predominantly conservative Muslim nation, often grapples with the assurance of women’s rights. Furthermore, contemporary Egypt paints a picture of paradoxes and contradictions, highlighting the complexities of its societal landscape. These complexities are exemplified by different challenges and ongoing struggles for women’s rights.

Although criminalized in 2008, Female genital mutilation (FGM) remains prevalent due to entrenched cultural beliefs. Although there was a decline in FGM prevalence following legal reforms in 2008 and 2016^[6]Egypt criminalized FGM in 2008 and increased penalties for those carrying out the procedures in 2016., a 2020 UNICEF study indicates high rates of occurrence, with a staggering 87% of married women aged 15 to 49 undergoing FGM^[7]UNICEF. (2020). Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt: Recent trends and projections. https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/FGM-Brochure-Recent-Trends-Projections-Egypt-English_2020.pdf. The government’s response has been inadequate, with limited convictions and ongoing challenges in enforcement. Efforts to combat FGM include the attempt to raise awareness among medical practitioners and families^[8]Menan Khani. 7 February 2016. 87% of females in Egypt aged 15 to 49 underwent FGM from 2004-2015: UNICEF. Daily News Egypt. … Continue reading. Noteworthy court verdicts, such as the 2015 sentencing of a doctor for conducting fatal FGM, underscore the gravity of the issue^[9]Arrest of Egypt FGM doctor Raslan Fadl welcomed. (29 July 2016) BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36925432. Launched in June 2020, the Restore FGM clinic in Cairo is the MENA region’s first multidisciplinary center dedicated to addressing FGM complications^[10]Womena. (11 April 2022). Dig Deeper E3 | Restoring FGM and Mental Health with Dr Reham Awwad. [Video]. http: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_3J5a0CnY-Y. Founded by surgeons Reham Awwad and Amr Seifeldin, it offers clitoral reconstruction surgery and psychosexual counseling^[11]See Restore FGM website: https://restorefgm.com/home-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9. he clinic advocates for improved sex education in schools, training for reconstructive surgery in universities, and increased funding to broaden access to care beyond prevention efforts^[12]Egypt clinic helps women reclaim bodies scarred by genital mutilation. (14 June 2023). France24. … Continue reading.

The repression of women’s rights also manifests itself in clothing codes, with women wearing hijabs facing discrimination^[13]Ahmed Elshamy. (26 August 2022). Women with hijab found to face bias in Egypt. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-62678403. In contemporary Cairo, upscale establishments imposing restrictions on women wearing the niqab or hijab create challenges to women’s freedom of movement and personal choices^[14]Naomi Conrad. (30 July 2015). Barred for wearing a hijab. Deutsche Welle. https://www.dw.com/en/headscarves-limit-affluent-egyptian-womens-social-lives/a-18618655. This pressures both women who may be forced into conservative dress codes by their families, and those who choose to wear the niqab or hijab voluntarily. Furthermore, in 2023, the Egyptian government banned face-covering veils, including the niqab, in public and private schools^[15]Egypt bans female students from wearing Niqab and other face coverings at schools. (12 September 2023). Egypt Independent. … Continue reading. This government decision has divided society and feminist groups. Some have welcomed the new policy, seeing it as an enhancement of school security, while others are concerned about the potential isolation of niqab-wearing students, as the ban may prompt some parents to transfer their children from mixed-gender schools to female-only ones^[16]Umut Uras. (12 September 2023). Egyptians divided over recent niqab ban at schools. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/12/egyptians-divided-over-recent-niqab-ban-at-schools. Still, others view this as another instance of the government policing women’s bodies. The narrative of women’s rights in Egypt is continuously evolving, shaped by a variety of factors including cultural norms, legal frameworks, and societal attitudes.

During the 2011 revolution that prompted President Mubarak’s resignation clearing the way for free elections and democracy, the iconic Tahrir Square was the stage for multiple cases of harassment and sexual violence against women^[17]UN University. (22 October 2017). Since the Revolution: Women’s Rights and Religious Freedom in Egypt. [Video]. http: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f5BH8lUaFqQ. Feminist associations documented numerous instances of such abuse, with images like the “blue bra” photograph becoming emblematic of the brutality women faced during the revolution^[18]Kainaz Amaria. (21 December 2011). The ‘Girl In The Blue Bra’. NPR https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2011/12/21/144098384/the-girl-in-the-blue-bra. Despite the evidence, part of public opinion tries to downplay or deny these cases as discussions about these events are often sensitive. The revolution is part of the Egyptian national myth, and some who participated in the revolution are reluctant to acknowledge or address the issue of sexual violence for fear of tarnishing the revolution’s image^[19]Middle East Institute. (1 June 2021). Equality for Some: Challenges to Women’s Rights in Egypt. [Video]. http: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuEkMQrj7iM.

Nonetheless, a positive trend has emerged as Egypt’s youth grows more politically engaged, utilizing social media platforms to amplify voices on critical topics like sexual harassment and sex education^[20]Accusations of Serial Assault Spark New #MeToo Wave in Egypt. (13 July 2020). Voice of America. https://www.voanews.com/a/middle-east_accusations-serial-assault-spark-new-metoo-wave-egypt/6192689.html. Initiatives like Assault Police, Speak Up or WhatWomenWant are powerful examples of how social media can help break the silence surrounding sexist and sexual violence, shed light on rape cases, and raise public awareness^[21]See instagram pages: https://www.instagram.com/assaultpolice/?hl=en, https://www.instagram.com/speakup.00, https://www.instagram.com/whatwomenwantmag. Nadeen Ashraf, an Egyptian feminist activist credited with igniting Egypt’s #MeToo movement, through her use of social media, created the “Assault Police” Instagram account. Its purpose: to provide a safe space for women to anonymously share their experiences of sexual assault and rape. The account played a pivotal role in uncovering significant cases, such as that of Ahmed Bassam Zaki, who received a three-year prison sentence for online sexual harassment in 2020^[22]Egypt student jailed for 3 years for online sexual harassment. (29 December 2020). Middle East Monitor. … Continue reading. Additionally, it brought to light the 2014 alleged gang rape of a woman in a hotel by a group of men from influential families. This online movement has has also catalyzed a shift in judicial attitudes towards rape perpetrators, with judges breaking away from previous leniency towards offenders^[23]Egypt arrests suspect in 2014 hotel gang rape case. (27 August 2020). Arab News. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1725516/middle-east. Responding to the growing public debate over women’s safety, the parliament passed a law in 2020 giving women automatic anonymity when reporting sex crimes^[24]Menna A. Farouk. (11 April 2021). Egypt Instagram activist hopes jailing sex crimes student drives change. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-harassment-instagram-idUSKBN2BY0R6/; Menna … Continue reading. Moreover, amendments endorsed by the Egyptian parliament in 2023 introduced stricter penalties for sexual harassment and bullying^[25]Parliament Applies New Penalities for Sexual Harassment & Bullying. (14 November 2023). Cairo Scene. https://scenenow.com/Buzz/Parliament-Applies-New-Penalities-for-Sexual-Harassment-Bullying. 

Al-Sisi’s re-election and his policies on women’s rights

The continuation of President al-Sisi’s presidency was easily predictable. On October 11, 2023, Gameela Ismail, head of the al Dostour (Constitution) Party and second female candidate in Egypt’s history to run for President, announced her withdrawal from the race^[26]See Gameela Ismail Facebook post: https://www.facebook.com/gameelaismail/posts/853476956147904. Chairwoman of Constitution Party Gameela Ismail drops out of presidential election. (11 October 2023). … Continue reading. The opposition political activist honored her party’s decision not to participate in the presidential election, ​​citing difficulties faced by her supporters during registration^[27]See Gameela Ismail Facebook post: https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=10230843353849022&set=a.1462633047437. Two days later, the other opposition candidate, Ahmed El-Tantawi, also had to resign for similar reasons. Three of the four significant contenders who successfully registered — Abdel-Sanad Yamama, Farid Zahran, and Hazem Omar — emerge from parties closely aligned with al-Sisi, highlighting a distinct absence of opposition. Observers described these elections as far from democratic, marked by an intensification of government repression against political opponents, peaceful demonstrators, and critics. In the lead-up to the 2023 presidential elections, Egyptian authorities have escalated their crackdown on dissent, arresting and interrogating at least 196 individuals involved in unauthorized protests and accused of terrorism-related activities and spreading “false news”^[28]Amnesty International. (2023). Egypt: Authorities step up repression ahead of presidential elections. … Continue reading. Peaceful pro-Palestine protesters have faced particular scrutiny, with security forces arbitrarily arresting dozens, including children, in connection to solidarity protests across various governorates^[29]Amnesty International. (2023). Egypt: Authorities step up repression ahead of presidential elections. … Continue reading. Moreover, the candidate Ahmed al-Tantawi – who formally withdrew from the race – reported the detention of over a 100 of his supporters in the weeks leading up to the elections, highlighting the challenges faced by those seeking to contest the presidency^[30]Egypt: Main opposition hopeful abandons presidential race. (14 October 2023). Africa News. https://www.africanews.com/2023/10/14/egypt-main-opposition-hopeful-abandons-presidential-race/. 

During his campaign and previous mandates, President al-Sisi has consistently stressed the importance of equal rights, positioning women’s empowerment as a catalyst for Egypt’s development and as a counterforce to the influence of the Muslim Brotherhood – Egypt’s oldest and largest Islamist organization and al-Sisi’s political opponents^[31]Euromed Rights. (2021). Egypt’s government does not tolerate feminism but its own. https://euromedrights.org/publication/egypts-government-does-not-tolerate-feminism-but-its-own/. In his narrative, Egyptian women emerge as pivotal figures, embodying qualities of “patience, […] persistence, determination, and success”, as stated by the President at a ceremony to honor Egyptian women and ideal mothers in March 2023^[32]Walaa Gebba. (20 March 2023). President Sisi stresses importance of continuing to promote women’s rights. Ahram Online. … Continue reading. Al-Sisi lauds their contributions, highlighting their instrumental role in “safeguarding Egypt in 2013”. He further stated: “When I called on the citizens to take to the streets on June 26, 2013 […] women took the lead, inspiring all family members to come out to give me the mandate”^[33]State Information Service. (20 March 2023). President El-Sisi and First Lady attend Ceremony Marking Egyptian Women’s Day. … Continue reading. 

In March 2023, the President unveiled his national initiative for enhancing the Egyptian family and reshaping gender parity. His vision includes boosting women’s presence on public and corporate boards, fostering technology training opportunities, backing women in launching small-scale green ventures, and promoting digital financial initiatives. It remains to be seen in the coming months whether these pledges will translate into tangible actions and effectively enhance the status of women in Egypt^[34]State Information Service. (20 March 2023). President El-Sisi and First Lady attend Ceremony Marking Egyptian Women’s Day. … Continue reading. 

While President al-Sisi has put forward a plan to advance women’s condition in Egypt, some critics accuse the President of engaging in feminist washing, using selective policies and token gestures to mask deeper issues of gender inequality and systemic oppression^[35]Nora Noralla. (26 September 2022). Inside Egypt’s Feminist Washing. The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy. https://timep.org/2022/09/26/inside-egypts-feminist-washing/. The effectiveness of initiatives like the “Closing the Gender Gap Accelerator” plan, launched in 2021 by Egypt’s Ministry of International Cooperation with the National Council for Women, the World Economic Forum, and private sector representatives, is questioned^[36]Ministry of International Cooperation. (n. d.). Gender Equality. https://moic.gov.eg/sector/Gender%20Equality/5. Minister of International Cooperation Rania Al-Mashat claims the accelerator aided COVID-19 mitigation in 2020 and aims to address the widened gender gap in 2021, but skepticism remains among observers^[37]Egypt’s Sisi expresses respect and appreciation for Egyptian women on International Women Day. (8 March 2023). Egypt Forward. … Continue reading. Moreover, women’s political participation hinges on allegiance to the regime, not dissent. Among the 89 women parliamentarians, only two opposed the 2019 constitutional amendment granting Sisi expanded powers.

The government’s emphasis on equal pay, legislative and institutional support for women’s enterprises, and protection of working women’s rights in proposed labor laws demonstrates a comprehensive approach to addressing gender disparities, but is not open to confrontation with civil society^[38]Walaa Gebba. (20 March 2023). President Sisi stresses importance of continuing to promote women’s rights. Ahram Online. … Continue reading. The lack of democratic processes and the restriction of political freedoms cast a shadow over the prospects of change for women’s rights, at least as long as al-Sisi maintains his grip on power.

State feminism in Egypt: a strict monopoly of women rights   

A significant concern is the consolidation of what is termed “State feminism”, wherein the State becomes the primary platform for the expression and articulation of ideas related to women’s rights. Coined by the political scientist Helga Hernes in the context of Norwegian government-backed liberal feminism, scholars now apply the term to situations in Egypt where the government dictates its version of feminism while restricting non-governmental organizations from advocating alternative feminist programs^[39]Badran, M. (2009). Feminism in Islam: secular and religious convergences. Oneworld Publications. 

The story of Doria Shafik, an independent feminist in Egypt, serves as an illustration of the traditionally complex relationship between the State and women’s rights activists^[40]Council on Foreign Relations. (14 April 2021). Virtual Roundtable: Women’s Rights in Egypt: A Conversation with Mozn Hassan. [Video]. http: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z1Tz9TKsaj0. As women were excluded from crafting the new constitution in 1951, Shafik secretly gathered 1,500 women from Egypt’s two main feminist groups (Bint Al-Nil and the Egyptian Feminist Union) and led a march to the Parliament to present a set of demands to improve women’s rights. After starting a hunger strike for the cause two years later^[41]David D. Kirkpatrick. (22 August 2018). Overlooked No More: Doria Shafik, Who Led Egypt’s Women’s Liberation Movement. The New York Times. … Continue reading, Shafik found herself placed under house arrest in 1957 until her eventual suicide in 1975^[42]Cynthia Nelson. (1996). Doria Shafik Egyptian Feminist, A Woman Apart. AUC Press. Remarkably, it was after the Nasser regime dissolved all feminist organizations and absorbed them as “government-run charities”, that it granted women the right to vote, framing it as a benevolent concession on its terms rather than a response to civil society demands^[43]Nadine Sika & Yasmin Khodary. (2012). One Step Forward, Two Steps Back? Egyptian Women within the Confines of Authoritarianism. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 13(5), 91-100. … Continue reading.

This historical episode sheds light on the government’s tendency to control and dictate the pace of progress in women’s rights, offering concessions on its terms rather than responding to grassroots activism. Under the Nasser regime, women enjoyed equal access to education and employment, evidenced by the exceptional number of female professors at Cairo University in the 1960s. However, women continued to be subordinate to men in the private sphere, and discriminatory family laws persisted without amendment. Shafik’s unique position as the sole individual to label Egypt’s President Nasser as “undemocratic” and foresee authoritarianism in Egypt highlights the courageous dissent that can come at a high personal cost.

Today, the repression of activists is harsh and manifests in police violence, persistent pressure, the incarceration of activists, the freezing of their bank accounts, travel restrictions, and even threats of the families of activists living abroad, all of which aim to stifle their advocacy work and hinder access to necessary resources^[44]Middle East Institute. (1 June 2021). Equality for Some: Challenges to Women’s Rights in Egypt. [Video]. http: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuEkMQrj7iM. More than 200 female political prisoners are currently detained in Egypt facing deplorable conditions of detention^[45]Rosário Frada. (13 December 2023). State Violence Against Women in Egypt’s Prisons: Gendering Bodies and Space. Gender in Geopolitics Institute. https://igg-geo.org/?p=17057&lang=en; Solafa … Continue reading.

Despite the achievements of the 20th and 21st centuries, the feminist movement in Egypts contends with the repercussions of “State feminism”. The repression of grassroots movements and the unwillingness to listen to independent civil society organizations, has slowed progress on women’s rights^[46]Rania Mostafa. (10 March 2023). Sisi and International Women’s Day. Middle East Monitor. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230310-sisi-and-international-womens-day/. As a result, the demands of feminists for fundamental changes have not changed for years. For instance, some amendments to the Personal Status Law and the reforms related to divorce voiced by activists today, are issues that have echoed since the 1930s^[47]Middle East Institute. (1 June 2021). Equality for Some: Challenges to Women’s Rights in Egypt. [Video]. http: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuEkMQrj7iM.

Conclusion and recommendations 

Women’s rights activists encounter significant hurdles in navigating Egypt’s complex landscape, where legal, cultural, and political forces intricately shape the status of women’s rights. Women advocating for rights beyond government decrees face harsh repression. What lies ahead for women’s rights in Egypt in such a context remains uncertain.

Despite legislative amendments and new laws, women continue to be classified as “minors” under family laws^[48]Also called “Personal Status Law”, it includes the regulation of the relationship of individuals among each other, namely descent, marriage, kinship, birth, guardianship, custody, mutual … Continue reading, symbolizing lingering legal disparities. Challenges persist, particularly for divorced women lacking homes, despite the backdrop of a constitution revised in 2014. 

Egyptian activists encounter a variety of obstacles, ranging from frozen assets and travel bans to incarceration, police brutality, and unrelenting intimidation from authorities. It is imperative for foreign governments and international organizations to amplify their support for these activists. This support should encompass diplomatic efforts, advocacy for human rights, and tangible resources to safeguard activists at risk. Despite the obstacles, sustained international solidarity with Egyptian activists remains essential in the pursuit of justice and human rights in the region.

Women’s health is endangered by cultural barriers, evident in the widespread practice of female genital mutilation, underscoring the imperative for profound cultural transformations. While prevention efforts receive vital attention and funding, it is crucial to broaden support to include programs dedicated to assisting FGM survivors. These diversified funding strategies should guarantee access to medical, psychological, and social support services to help survivors heal and reintegrate into society.

As Egypt grapples with the complexities of its social landscape, genuine and enduring change hinges upon transformative cultural shifts and steadfast international solidarity. The journey towards gender equality demands not only legal reform but also a collective commitment to dismantle entrenched barriers and empower women at every level of society.

The views expressed in this article are solely those of the author. 

To cite this article: VIDOTTO Cecilia (2024). Pyramids of Power: When Government-issued Feminism Represses Grassroots Women’s Movement in Egypt. Gender in Geopolitics Institute. https://igg-geo.org/?p=18912&lang=en.