Ukraine war: a result of toxic masculinity?  

(Original: French) 

Written by: Violette Pottié 

“If Putin was a woman, […] I really don’t think he would’ve embarked on a crazy, macho war of invasion and violence in the way that he has [in Ukraine]^[1]ZDF. (30 juin 2022). Johnson: “If Putin was a woman…” [Johnson : « Si Poutine était une femme…»].[Fichier vidéo]. … Continue reading” Boris Johnson told German media ZDF on 30 June, painting the Russian leader as “a perfect example of toxic masculinity^[2]Ibid“. This analysis of the war in Ukraine is not new; ever since the invasion of Europe’s breadbasket^[3] Another name given to Ukraine, with its 32 million hectares of arable land, the attitude and motives displayed by Vladimir Putin seem to be embedded in a logic of toxic masculinity and patriarchal domination. How does the war in Ukraine and its protagonists result from a context of toxic masculinity? 

Toxic masculinity, inherent to the war context 

Toxic masculinity refers to a set of cultural norms and expectations of men that are considered harmful to society^[4]Allan, V. (30 juin 2022). Would Ukraine war not have happened if Putin was a woman? [La guerre en Ukraine aurait-elle eu lieu si Poutine avait-été une femme ?]. The … Continue reading“. Misogyny, homophobia, greed, and violent domination^[5]Kupers, T. (6 juin 2005). Toxic masculinity as a barrier to mental health treatment in prison. [La masculinité toxique comme barrière au traitement de la santé mentale en prison]. Journal of … Continue reading” are aspects stemming from these norms. According to sociologist R. Connell, these different practices allow men to maintain their dominance over women in a ” hegemonic masculinity ” dynamic^[6]Connell, R & Messerschmidt, J. (Décembre 2005). Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept. [Hégémonique masculinité : Repenser le concept]. Gender and … Continue reading. 

In Europe, war and armed conflict are, in the collective imagination, deeply rooted in masculine values. “The male stereotype was constructed from and for war^[7]Gravelle, J. (15 mars 2022). Là où naissent les mâles. La Presse. https://www.lapresse.ca/debats/opinions/2022-03-15/guerre-en-ukraine/la-ou-naissent-les-males.php “, explains author Julien Gravelle. This stereotype is the legacy of centuries of armed conflict and military service that instilled in men the value of sacrificing their lives on the battlefield, as well as the responsibility to defend their country, their wives, and their children^[8]Words from historian Fabrice Virgile to : Cohen, E. (8 mars 2022). « Guerre viriliste » en Ukraine : « Associer les femmes à la paix est essentialisant … Continue reading.  

Thus, clearly distinct gender roles are established in times of war: men are sent to battle, and women, who remain behind the lines, are in charge of taking care of children or supporting the war effort but remain confined to traditionally female roles, such as the nurse. Thus, heroism is associated with virility, a man’s sacrifice for his country. 

In the 19th century, direct armed conflicts became increasingly rare in the West. The war in Ukraine then seems like a step backwards to a beastly time when men were on the battlefield, filled with a will to serve their nation or forced to fight by their leaders^[9]La guerre, incarnation de la masculinité toxique ? (20 mars 2022). Du côté de chez Catherine – Radio Canada. [Fichier … Continue reading. 

However, armed conflict is no longer a male monopoly; the introduction of women into the army and the abolition of compulsory military service for men have allowed women to emerge from the shadows of the resistance. 

Ukraine facing Russia, a confrontation of values and mentalities 

Toxic masculinity within the war in Ukraine can be seen primarily through analysing the balance of power between nations. The invasion of Ukraine ordered by the Russian president represents aggression, disregarding international law^[10]Maurel, R. (8 mars 2022). L’intervention russe en Ukraine est-elle justifiée par la “légitime défense” et pour protéger des populations ? De … Continue reading and the UN Charter^[11]Nations Unies. La Charte des Nations Unies.  https://www.un.org/fr/about-us/un-charter/chapter-1 and can be seen as a metaphor for the violation of consent by imperialism justified as salific. It must be said that the Ukrainian troops are no match for the second-largest army in the world, with only a quarter of the Russian troops in number^[12]Sporenda, F. (15 mars 2022). L’Ukraine sur les réseaux sociaux : Excuser un agresseur. Presse-toi à gauche. https://www.pressegauche.org/L-Ukraine-sur-les-reseaux-sociaux-EXCUSER-UN-AGRESSEUR . These offensive behaviours and strategies, inflicted on Ukraine despite any rules, show extreme brutality and willingness to dominate.  

Since the 20th century, the Kremlin has held a narrative associating Europe with a space of “sexual decadence^[13]Herz, V. (22 avril 2022) Vladimir Poutine, “mâle dominant” va-t-en-guerre. Actuelles – France 24. [Fichier … Continue reading” as the ways of thinking of European democracies have become increasingly open to the rights of women and LGBTQIA+ people. In fact, since the pro-European protests of 2014, Ukraine has been drawing away from the values of the former Soviet Union and towards those of the rest of Europe^[14]ZDF. (30 juin 2022). Johnson: “If Putin was a woman…” [Johnson : « Si Poutine était une femme…»].[Fichier … Continue reading. In the eyes of Vladimir Putin, who is strongly opposed to same-sex marriage^[15]According to Vladimir Putin, marriage is only possible between “a man and a woman”. (13 février 2020). La Voix du Nord – … Continue reading and whose sexist statements and policies perpetuate the oppression of women^[16]Quel est le degré de sexisme de Poutine ? (5 juin 2014). Libération – AFP. https://www.liberation.fr/france/2014/06/05/trierweiler-heureuse-de-ne-pas-avoir-a-serrer-la-main-de-poutine_1033927/ , Ukrainian separationism represents a blatant affront. The rise of extremist male groups (such as hooligans^[17]Supertino, G. (13 juin 2016).  Qu’est-ce que le hooliganisme à la russe ? Europe 1 – AFP. https://www.europe1.fr/societe/quest-ce-que-le-hooliganisme-a-la-russe-2771114 )) in recent years … Continue reading, a powerful and masculine nation, against Ukraine, a weak country perverted by the Western values of the rest of Europe.  

Two leaders with diverging masculinities 

The war in Ukraine has brought to the forefront of the media stage two men with diametrically opposed personalities. On the one hand, Vladimir Putin sets himself up as an allegory of the male leader, a primitive man dominating nature. A longstanding propaganda campaign showcases the Russian leader in this light of superhuman strength; from bodybuilding videos^[18]euronews (en français). (31 août 2015).Poutine et Medvedev font de la musculation ensemble. [Fichier vidéo]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c2yZRlMj6F4 to military training and bare-chested photos with a rifle in the middle of Siberia^[19]Krafft, C. (12 septembre 2010). Vladimir Poutine, ou la «virilité comme valeur politique». Le Matin … Continue reading, there are plenty of images of Vladimir Putin in his most masculine glory. 

His administration is almost all male, with only one woman among his close advisors^[20]Allan, V. (30 juin 2022). Would Ukraine war not have happened if Putin was a woman? [La guerre en Ukraine aurait-elle eu lieu si Poutine avait-été une femme ?]. The … Continue reading. Recalling the nation’s glorious past, the character embodied by V. Putin is reminiscent of the muzhik, the original strong Russian peasant, impervious to emotions and whose collective national spirit outweighs any sense of individuality^[21]Herz, V. (22 avril 2022) Vladimir Poutine, “mâle dominant” va-t-en-guerre. Actuelles – France 24. [Fichier … Continue reading. Historian Jean-François Fayet even considers V. Putin “the first statesman to have made virility a political value^[22]Krafft, C. (12 septembre 2010). Vladimir Poutine, ou la «virilité comme valeur politique». Le Matin … Continue reading“. 

In opposition to him, Volodymyr Zelensky embodies more positive^[23]ositive masculinity stands in opposition to toxic masculinity: “These alternative forms of being man recognise men, women, girls and boys as equal human beings and invite men to participate in … Continue reading and less belligerent masculinity. The Ukrainian leader appeals to values of altruism and pathos: he embraces asking other nations for help, creating a fundamental “reinvention of military language^[24]a guerre, incarnation de la masculinité toxique ? (20 mars 2022). Du côté de chez Catherine – Radio Canada. [Fichier … Continue reading”. If Vladimir Putin represents the masochist man, almost bestial in his brutality, emotional negation and backward conceptions of power, V. Zelensky seems to draw closer to the image of a more contemporary man, at peace with his feelings which he does not hesitate to express. Besides, since the beginning of the conflict, Olena Zelenska, the president’s wife, has made numerous appearances in the media and plays a central role in the conflict^[25]Chemin, A. (22 juin 2022). Olena Zelenska, de l’ombre à la guerre. Le … Continue reading. 

The interactions between the two men bear witness to these opposing personalities, as when V. Putin called out his Ukrainian counterpart this year on 7 February: “Whether you like it or not, my dear, you’ll have to take it^[26]Herz, V. (22 avril 2022) Vladimir Poutine, “mâle dominant” va-t-en-guerre. Actuelles – France 24. [Fichier … Continue reading“, thus establishing a power relationship in which the masochist man dominates the submissive woman. M. Forest, a researcher at Sciences Po, analyses the Russian president’s discourse: it is built around a sexualised and gendered imaginary narrative in which Russia is at war with Western democracies, especially European ones. Therefore, in the eyes of Vladimir Putin, V. Zelensky is only a decadent, subject to the inflexions of the rest of Europe^[27]Chemin, A. (22 juin 2022). Olena Zelenska, de l’ombre à la guerre. Le … Continue reading. 

In war-torn populations, the reproduction of toxic masculinity in the exercise of power 

Even if the image of V. Zelensky is less aggressive than his Russian counterpart’s, it is nevertheless necessary for both leaders to display a degree of virility to legitimise their power. Indeed, the exercise of power is traditionally associated with masculine strength^[28]Deswert, C. (2 mars 2022). Peut-on en finir avec le virilisme en politique ? The Conversation. https://actus.ulb.be/fr/actus/recherche/peut-on-en-finir-avec-le-virilisme-en-politique and is valued when exerted in a harsh manner. There are numerous examples of this, as V. Putin is echoed by macho political figures such as D. Trump or J. Bolsonaro. Conversely, when Barack Obama speaks of a world without nuclear power, he is accused of seeking to “castrate” the United States^[29]Quand la masculinité toxique menace le monde, c’est aux femmes d’y mettre un terme. (22 mai 2018). Le … Continue reading.  

This valorisation of the conquering patriarchal leader reinforces the leniency towards sexual aggression in a society where women’s bodies are objects that men can dispose of^[30]Deswert, C. (2 mars 2022). Peut-on en finir avec le virilisme en politique ? The Conversation. https://actus.ulb.be/fr/actus/recherche/peut-on-en-finir-avec-le-virilisme-en-politique. Since the beginning of the conflict, war crimes by Russian soldiers against Ukrainians have multiplied, including murder, mutilation, and rape^[31]To listen to learn more : Bardet, C. (13 mai 2022). Viol en tant qu’arme : le cas de la guerre en Ukraine. Institut du Genre en Géopolitique. While Moscow rejects the accusations of rape as part of an organisational system intrinsic to the army^[32]Propos tenu le 11 avril à l’ONU : Ukraine : l’ONU réclame des enquêtes sur les accusations de viols commis par des soldats russes. (12 avril 2022). France 24 – … Continue reading, the fact remains that the propaganda mobilised among Russian troops incites the dehumanisation of the enemy, which creates a conducive context for the use of rape as a war weapon. The policies of Vladimir Putin also contribute to this resort to sexual violence. Since coming to power, the leader has passed numerous measures restricting the rights of women and sexual minorities, as did his law decriminalising sexual violence^[33]Russie : la loi sur la dépénalisation des violences domestiques promulguée par Vladimir Poutine. (7 février 2017). Le Monde – … Continue reading.  

While the blame is often placed on Russian troops, the Ukrainian population also perpetuates toxic masculinity behaviours. Many transgender women, whose papers biologically identify them as men, are denied exit of the country^[34]Le Breton, M. (25 juin 2022). Les femmes trans qui tentent de fuir l’Ukraine face à un parcours infernal. The Huffington … Continue reading and forced to serve in the military, as do all Ukrainians aged 18-60. 

At the same time, women find themselves bearing the burden of war as the primary victims of exploitation and sexual violence^[35]Quand la masculinité toxique menace le monde, c’est aux femmes d’y mettre un terme. (22 mai 2018). Le … Continue reading. However, traditional gender roles established during wartime are bound to be temporarily challenged as women emancipate themselves from their traditional social expectations^[36]To read to learn more :  Violette Pottié, “Guerre en Ukraine : une opportunité pour les femmes de s’extraire de leur rôle genré ?”, 08/07/2022, Institut du Genre en … Continue reading.  

Positive masculinity: are women in power less likely to be violent? 

It is, therefore, necessary to question this violence inherent to toxic masculinity and its place in female power. Within the social perception of the feminine/masculine binarity, women are associated with more gentle and peaceful behaviour. Nicola Sturgeon, a Scottish politician, claimed in the context of the Ukraine conflict that “the world would be a better place if there were more women in leadership positions [as they] tend to bring more common sense, emotional intelligence and rational approach^[37]Boris Johnson dit que la “masculinité toxique” de Poutine est à blâmer pour la guerre en Ukraine. (29 juin 2022). Nouvelles du … Continue reading“. Yet, linking pacifism to femininity is an essentialist shortcut^[38]Cohen, E. (8 mars 2022). « Guerre viriliste » en Ukraine : « Associer les femmes à la paix est essentialisant … Continue reading, reducing women to a homogeneous group, especially as the reality is far from clear-cut. A study showed that while greater female legislative representation is linked to lower defense spending, this is not the case for women in executive positions, whose attitudes and decisions are more conflict-ridden than men’s^[39]Koch, M & Fulton, S. (14 janvier 2011). In the Defense of Women: Gender, Office Holding, and National Security Policy in Established Democracies. [En défense des femmes : Genre, responsabilité, … Continue reading. These results can be partly explained by the concept of ‘double bind’, illustrated by Bourdieu^[40]NDLT « double impasse » in French : Bourdieu, P. (1998). La domination masculine. Seuil., which leads women to exacerbate traits traditionally seen as masculine to overcome stereotypes labelling them as ‘weak’ and illegitimate for positions of power^[41]Deswert, C. (2 mars 2022). Peut-on en finir avec le virilisme en politique ? The Conversation. https://actus.ulb.be/fr/actus/recherche/peut-on-en-finir-avec-le-virilisme-en-politique . 

However, masculine values are not necessarily ‘toxic’ but quite the opposite. Couldn’t bravery, often associated with men as a force used in physical combat, take on the meaning of a different kind of courage, of a different kind of confrontation, that of negotiation and dialogue^[42]La guerre, incarnation de la masculinité toxique ? (20 mars 2022). Du côté de chez Catherine – Radio Canada. [Fichier … Continue reading? It is time to stop valuing a virile governance mode and de-gender power into a conception that is intrinsically neither feminine nor masculine^[43]Navès, M-C. (2020) La démocratie féministe. Réinventer le pouvoir, au profit d’un leadership combatif. Calmann-Lévy.. If political leaders were to move towards such an exercise of power, devoid of toxic masculinity, perhaps conflicts could be avoided, and negotiations favoured over demonstrations of force and humiliation. 

To quote this article: Violette Pottié “Guerre en Ukraine : une résultante de la masculinité toxique ?”, 15/07/2022, Gender in Geopolitics Institute. 

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